LIBRARY 

OF  THE^ 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


BY 


ARTHUR  C.  PERRY,  JR.,  PH.D. 

AUTHOR  OF 
"THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL" 


D.    APPLETON   AND    COMPANY 
NEW   YORK  CHICAGO 

1910 


COPYRIGHT,  1910,  BY 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


PREFACE 


THIS  study  of  the  elementary  school  consists  of  two 
parts;  the  first  is  concerned  with  the  broad  general 
problems  dependent  upon  its  organic  structure,  the 
second  with  specific  phases  of  its  work  as  planned  and 
directed  by  the  principal  of  a  school  or  the  teacher  of 
a  class.  Although  these  two  parts  might  imply  each 
its  own  audience,  I  venture  the  hope  that  the  general 
discussion  in  Part  One  may  not  only  give  the  general 
student  and  the  lay  reader  food  for  reflection,  but  that 
it  may  also  meet  responsive  interest  in  the  thought  of 
earnest  practical  teachers. 

For  the  past  few  years  our  teachers  have  been  the 
subject  of  rather  microscopic  study;  their  shortcom- 
ings have  been  duly  analyzed  and  their  responsibili- 
ties extensively  chronicled.  While  they  have  been 
diligently  tilling  the  educational  soil,  the  educational 
geologists  have  looked  on  with  voluminous  criticism 
of  their  methods  and  manners,  and  latterly  show  a 
tendency  to  charge  the  teachers  with  responsibility 
for  the  very  faults  and  fissures  which  inhere  in  the  ed- 
ucational substratum.  It  seems  but  just  that  the 

iii 


207827 


PREFACE 

teachers  should  seek  to  deflect  this  charge,  and  the 
first  three  chapters  of  this  book  may,  in  one  sense,  be 
construed  as  a  brief  in  their  behalf. 

It  is  clearly  impossible  for  an  essayist  to  make  form- 
al acknowledgment  of  all  the  sources  of  his  inspira- 
tion. The  student  of  education  keeps  his  mind  open 
to  the  influence  of  every  honest  word  whether  spoken 
by  the  thinkers  of  old  or  by  the  seers  of  to-day,  and  he 
keeps  his  heart  open  to  the  influence  of  the  living 
child,  to  whom  all  educational  systems  owe  their  ex- 
istence. And  who  shall  say  which  speaks  the  more 
effectively,  Plato  and  Emerson  and  Mark  Hopkins,  or 
the  tow-headed  boy  in  the  fourth  seat  in  the  third  row 
and  the  patient  teacher  who  is  leading  him,  helpfully 
and  hopefully,  according  to  her  lights? 

So  I  make  no  attempt  to  catalogue  in  full  my  indebt- 
edness to  the  many  writers  and  preceptors  who  have 
touched  me.  I  must,  however,  record  with  pleasure 
my  obligation  to  Mr.  E.  W.  Fielder  for  his  counsel,  es- 
pecially regarding  the  statistical  work  at  page  12,  and 
to  Professor  Henry  W.  Holmes,  of  Harvard  University, 
and  Superintendent  C.  N.  Kendall,  of  Indianapolis, 
for  constructive  criticism.  Finally,  it  would  be  an 
inexcusable  breach  of  duty  were  I  to  pass  over  in 
silence  the  names  of  Miss  Mary  A.  Mason,  now  prin- 
cipal of  Public  School  Number  79,  Brooklyn,  and 
Miss  Alice  H.  Story  and  Mrs.  Jessie  N.  Mainwaring, 

iv 


PREFACE 

heads  of  department  in  Public  School  Number  85, 
who  have  in  turn  so  ably  carried  to  successful  fruition 
the  work  described  in  the  last  chapter.  It  would  be 
presumptuous  for  me  to  offer  them  any  word  of  com- 
mendation; the  memory  of  their  service  to  scores  of 
girls  will  ever  speak  to  them  with  a  glowing  eloquence. 

ARTHUR  C.  PERRY,  JR. 
BROOKLYN,  N.  Y.,  March,  1910. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE iii 

PART  ONE:  PROBLEMS  IN   ORGANIZATION 

I. — THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 3 

II. — THE  CURRICULUM .       .36 

III. — MORAL  TRAINING 57 

PART  TWO:   PROBLEMS  IN   METHOD  AND 
MANAGEMENT 

INTRODUCTION 77 

IV. — ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

COMPOSITION 81 

GRAMMAR Ill 

V.— HISTORY  FACTS 118 

VI. — SOME  DEVICES  IN  ARITHMETIC 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  OPERATIONS      .       .       .  132 
A  SPECIAL  EXERCISE  IN  FUNDAMENTAL  OPER- 
ATIONS       145 

MULTIPLICATION  DRILL  CHART        .       .       .  150 
THE  MENSURATION  OF  THE  TRAPEZOID   .       .154 

LONGITUDE  AND  TIME 156 

VII. — THE  USE  OF  THE  BLACKBOARD        ....  161 

VIIL— THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM        ......  177 

IX. — THE  ALUMNI 185 

X. — THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS  ....  199 

INDEX 221 

vii 


PART  ONE 
PROBLEMS   IN   ORGANIZATION 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

CIVILIZED  societies  have  developed  many  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  the  proposition  of  state  support 
of  education.  Although  some  of  these  flow  from 
philosophic  and  altruistic  premises,  it  is  evident 
that  by  far  the  most  potent  of  all  arguments  is  the 
practical,  egoistic  one  of  self-protection  and  self-pres- 
ervation. In  this  the  social  group  is  but  the  analogue 
of  the  human  individual,  for  although  man  has 
become  so  civilized  a  creature  that  under  normal 
conditions  his  primal  impulses  are  successfully  sub- 
merged under  the  refinements  of  modern  ideals,  never- 
theless his  basic  instincts  persist  and  it  takes  but  a 
little  disturbance  of  normal  condition  to  bring  them  to 
the  surface. 

The  most  fundamental  instinct,  the  very  life- 
spring  of  the  actions  of  primitive  man,  is  that  of  self- 
preservation.  The  modern  man,  in  polite  society,  has 
inlaid  and  overlaid  this  elementary  function  with  a 
mosaic  of  modern  conventions,  so  that  very  many  of 

3 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

his  acts  -bear  the  stamp  of  genuine  altruism.  But  let 
there  be  a  disastrous  fire  on  shipboard  or  in  a  crowded 
building,  and  rapidly  indeed  do  the  modern  conven- 
tions fall  away  before  the  ancient  impulses.  Excep- 
tionally fortunate  is  the  record  of  such  a  disaster  that 
does  not  show  scores  of  men  reduced  to  blind  followers 
of  the  primal  forces.  Thus,  however  much  altruism 
may  function  in  the  daily  routine  of  the  individual, 
we  cannot  ignore  the  fact  that  self-preservation  and 
its  correlated  instincts  remain  the  most  potent  regu- 
lators of  the  conduct  both  of  men  and  of  nations. 

Society  recognizes,  in  general,  two  distinct  require- 
ments as  to  the  education  of  its  members  which  are 
necessary  to  its  own  proper  development,  namely,  sat- 
isfactory, universal,  mass  intelligence,  and  a  contin- 
uous and  sufficient  supply  of  exceptional  ability.  The 
first  of  these  conditions  the  existence  of  the  state; 
the  second,  its  progress.  The  intelligence  of  all  its 
members  must  be  kept  at  so  high  an  average  as  shall 
prevent  deterioration;  the  intelligence  of  a  few  of 
its  members  must  so  far  reach  above  the  average  as 
to  insure  progressive  leadership.  In  consequence 
there  are  to  be  seen  everywhere  two  phases  in  the 
provision  of  public  education,  the  compulsory  phase 
and  the  opportunity  phase.  These  in  turn  impose 
the  duty  of  education  on  the  one  side  and  extend  the 
privilege  of  education  on  the  other. 

4 


THE   ORGANIC   STRUCTURE 

To  all  its  members  of  worth  and  promise,  the  state 
extends  the  invitation  to  avail  themselves  of  the  op- 
portunity to  pursue  the  educational  privilege  to  the 
utmost.  America  stands  foremost  among  the  nations 
in  the  richness  and  fullness  of  this  invitation,  in  its 
lavish  provision  of  educational  institutions  of  the 
highest  type.  To  every  young  man  of  ability  and  de- 
termination, however  humble  his  birth,  however  ob- 
scure his  ancestral  line,  however  limited  his  financial 
resources,  there  is  issued  this  invitation  to  a  liberal  ed- 
ucation. The  state  cheerfully  contributes  to  the  sup- 
port of  that  education  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  im- 
mediate return  which  it  is  possible  for  the  youth  to 
make — all  with  the  hope  as  to  each  particular  youth, 
that  he  may  prove  in  his  maturity  to  be  the  one  who 
shall  render  back  to  the  state  in  intelligent  leadership 
such  service  as  shall  justify  the  outlay  expended  upon 
a  hundred  of  his  contemporaries. 

This  leadership  is  no  more  necessary  to  progress, 
however,  than  is  an  intelligent  constituency  necessary 
to  that  stability  which  is  the  prerequisite  of  progress. 
Unerring  leading  could  not  construct  a  successful  mod- 
ern state  out  of  an  inert  and  stupid  following.  For 
one  leader  there  are  hundreds  who  are  led.  Whether 
or  not  these  hundreds  appreciate  or  desire  education, 
the  state  of  to-day  gives  them  no  option.  Our  very 
stability,  our  very  safety,  it  says  to  them,  require  that 

5 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

you  shall  not  remain  unintelligent;  although  we  offer 
you  the  opportunity  to  educate  yourselves  liberally,  we 
cannot  compel  you  to  do  so,  but  we  can  and  will  compel 
you  to  rise  above  ignorance  and  illiteracy.  Compulsory 
education  dates  back  to  1717  in  Germany,  to  1833  in 
France,  to  1842  in  Sweden,  and  to-day  is  in  effect  in 
some  form  in  nearly  every  European  state.  In  America, 
limited  but  definite  efforts  in  this  direction  are  record- 
ed even  in  colonial  times;  and  to-day  a  majority  of  our 
American  states  recognize  in  their  statutes  this  phase 
of  educational  effort. 

In  general,  the  compulsory  education  laws  apply 
only  to  children  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  four- 
teen, although  a  few  states  extend  this  a  year  or  two 
in  either  direction.  This  means  that  the  compulsory 
phase  of  school  provision  concerns  itself  chiefly  with 
what  we  have  come  to  call  a  " common-school"  edu- 
cation, or  that  grade  of  our  school  system  which  we 
term  elementary,  whereas  the  opportunity  phase  ex- 
tends downward  to  the  kindergarten  and  upward  to 
the  secondary  school,  the  college,  and  the  university. 
Hence  we  see  that  the  elementary  school  is  unique  in 
that  it  is  the  only  grade  of  school  in  which  both  the 
compulsory  and  opportunity  purposes  are  operative. 

The  chief  problem  of  the  elementary  school  in 
America,  as  abroad,  is  concerned  with  the  organic  struc- 
ture of  the  school,  and  it  is  intimately  connected  with 

6 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

the  primary  distinction  between  the  two  phases  above 
emphasized.  It  is  true  that  both  phases  are  officially 
recognized  in  scattering  records  from  the  Massachu- 
setts Colony  1  down  to  date,  and  yet  many  a  current 
discussion  of  the  needs  of  the  elementary  school  is  be- 
fogged by  lack  of  appreciation  of  this  fundamental 
distinction  in  the  purposes  of  the  state  as  related  to 
its  schools. 

The  problem  as  it  exists  in  America  is  the  converse 
of  that  in  Germany  and  in  France.  A  few  words  in 
reference  to  the  school  organizations  of  all  three  coun- 
tries will  help  to  make  this  clear.  In  America,  the  ele- 
mentary school,  with  its  course  of  seven,  eight,  or 
nine  years,  enrolls  children  from  all  walks  of  life,  those 
with  every  advantage  of  good  breeding  and  good  for- 
tune, and  those  with  the  handicap  of  parental  igno- 
rance and  incompetency;  those  of  physical  robustness 
and  those  of  physical  weakness;  those  of  innate  alert- 
ness and  those  with  inherited  mental  inertia;  those 
destined  to  trade  or  the  trades  and  those  scheduled 
for  a  liberal  education  and  the  learned  professions;  in 
short,  every  possible  type  of  child  in  the  land.  And 
this  because,  in  the  words  of  our  distinguished  mon- 
itor and  adviser,  Dr.  Eliot,  "  We  are  trying  to  prepare 


1  See  Edwin  Grant  Dexter,  "  A  History  of  Education  in  the 
United  States,"  Macmillan,  1904,  p.  584. 

7 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

all  American  boys  and  girls  for  a  life  of  unprece- 
dented freedom — freedom  of  thought  and  speech; 
freedom  to  travel,  to  change  the  place  of  abode,  and 
to  change  the  occupation;  freedom  to  enter  into  any 
sort  of  public  or  secret  association  or  union;  freedom 
from  everything  resembling  castes  or  insurmountable 
social  or  political  barriers."  1 

To  the  American  turning  his  thought  to  the  Ger- 
man schools,  the  characteristic  which  first  arrests  his 
attention  is  the  definition  of  "higher  schools"  which 
there  denote,  not  a  higher  grade  of  school  in  the  Amer- 
ican sense,  but  schools  of  whatever  extent  of  grade, 
which  lead  to  higher  grade  work.  The  lower  school  is 
the  popular  Volksschule  with  its  course  normally  of 
eight  years;  the  higher  schools  are  all  those  which, 
beginning  at  the  fifth  school  year  or  even  lower,  carry 
pupils  forward  parallel  to  those  of  the  Volksschule  but 
through  a  different  curriculum,  and  beyond  into  work 
of  collegiate  grade.  Somewhat  similarly  in  France, 
"  the  division  between  primary  and  secondary  schools 
is  purely  a  longitudinal  one.  .  .  .  The  secondary 
school  which  begins  normally  at  nine  years  and  con- 
tinues for  nine  years  has  always  a  preparatory  section, 
so  that  the  child  may  really  enter  at  six  or  seven  years 


•Charles  W.  Eliot:  "More  Money  for  the  Public  Schools," 
Doubleday,  Page,  1903,  p.  57. 

8 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

of  age  and  follow  work  which  is  of  exactly  the  same 
nature  as  that  given  in  the  primary  school.  .  .  . 
The  primary  school  in  France  is  in  no  sense  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  secondary  school. "  1 

The  problem  abroad  is  recognized,  as  in  Germany, 
where  "many  of  the  leaders  of  the  pedagogic  world 
are  crying  out  for  the  Einheitsschule — one  school  for 
all — and  in  some  bright  spots  the  system  is  actually 
at  work.  As  the  barriers  of  social  life  in  modern  Ger- 
many are  broken  down — as  doubtless  they  will  be — 
so  will  disappear  the  barriers  between  the  various 
types  of  German  schools. "  2  Part  of  the  criticism  of 
the  German  schools  is  that  "it  is  as  difficult  for  a  lad 
to  pass  from  one  school  to  another  as  in  German  social 
life  it  is  to  rise  from  one  class  of  society  to  another," 
although  it  is  admitted  that  "this  statement  may 
seem  too  general."  The  assumption  seems  to  be 
made  by  the  German  reformers  that  the  establishment 
of  the  Einheitsschule  is  their  salvation. 

The  American  problem  is  the  converse  of  this.  We 
have  the  Einheitsschule  and  are  beginning  to  awaken 
to  a  realization  of  its  inadequacy  and  imperfections. 

'Frederic  Ernest  Farrington:  "The  Public  Primary  School 
System  of  France,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1906, 
p.  12. 

2  R.  E.  Hughes:  "The  Making  of  Citizens,"  Walter  Scott  Pub. 
Co.,  1902,  p.  8. 

2  9 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

We  may  state  the  criticism  of  our  present  system,  per- 
haps not  too  strongly,  as  follows.  Into  the  same  school, 
into  the  same  classroom,  we  thrust  those  pupils  to 
whom  we  wish  to  extend  the  opportunity  of  seeking 
a  liberal  education  and  also  those  others,  in  the  sub- 
stantial majority,  upon  whom  we  are  placing  the  duty 
of  securing  that  minimum  of  instruction  consistent 
with  proper  usefulness  in  a  republic.  We  place  these 
two  groups  of  pupils,  with  such  divergent  interests, 
into  the  same  classroom,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
same  teacher,  and  put  them  through  the  same  cur- 
riculum, and  then  wonder  at  the  confessed  failure  of 
the  public  school  to  prepare  great  numbers  of  its 
pupils  for  life. 

The  influence  of  the  college  has  been  exerted  upon 
the  secondary  schools  to  the  end  that  they  may  proper- 
ly and  adequately  prepare  their  pupils  for  college  en- 
trance. The  secondary  schools  have  extended  that 
influence  and  pressure  down  upon  the  elementary 
schools  demanding  that  they  shall  make  adequate 
preparation  for  the  high  school.  The  elementary 
school  has  consequently  turned  itself  into  a  prepara- 
tory school  for  high  schools.  In  recent  years  we  note 
a  tendency  upon  the  part  of  some  of  those  responsible 
for  elementary  school  organization  and  direction  to 
assert  their  independence  and  to  consider  their  charge 
upward  from  the  child  and  not  downward  from  the 

10 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

college.  Immediately  we  turn  our  faces  in  this  direc- 
tion we  discover  that  the  pupils  of  our  elementary 
schools  are  not  preparing  for  college,  have  no  thought 
or  desire  so  to  prepare,  and  in  most  cases  lack  the  in- 
nate ability  so  to  prepare.  This,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  group  of  pupils;  how  small  that  group  is  we 
scarcely  realize  until  we  consult  the  statistics  and  there 
find  that  ninety  per  cent  of  our  pupils  never  go  be- 
yond the  elementary  school  grade.1  Only  ten  per  cent 
are  scheduled  for  the  secondary  school  and  but  one 
tenth  of  these  for  the  college. 

Yet  the  casual  observer  of  our  schools  might  be 
warranted  in  supposing  that  we  were  all  quite  blind 
to  this  statistical  fact,  for  here  we  are,  pushing  ninety 
per  cent  and  ten  per  cent  alike  through  the  identical 
curriculum.  And  why?  Because  of  our  peculiar  concept 
of  democracy ;  because  of  our  strange  belief,  as  a  people, 
in  the  efficacy  of  law  and  education  to  equalize  the  un- 
equal; because  of  our  mistaken  loyalty  to  our  demo- 
cratic ideals  which  makes  it  almost  a  crime  to  suggest 
that  natural  caste  can  and  must  exist  even  in  a  repub- 
lic. Year  after  year  we  see  pupils  whose  earthly  des- 
tiny is  to  walk  humbly  in  the  nonscholastic  paths  of 
life,  compelled  to  spend  an  allotted  period  inside  of 

1  Cf .  "  The  work  of  the  elementary  schools  is  not  to  be  shaped 
with  special  reference  to  preparing  pupils  for  college,  because 
more  than  ninety-five  per  cent  of  all  the  pupils  of  the  elementary 

11 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

the  schoolhouse,   released  at   last,   disgusted    with 
school  life,  and  yet  ill  fitted  for  the  real  life  which  lies 
before  them. 
We  have  mistaken  our  duty  to  these  thousands ;  we 

schools  never  go  beyond  them." — Andrew  S.  Draper,  "American 
Education,"  Houghton,  Mifflin,  1909,  p.  129. 

The  enrollment  of  pupils  for  1907-8,  according  to  the  Report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  1908,  p.  22,  is 

as  follows 

In  public  Plus  those  in 

schools  private  schools 

Elementary 16,069,305  17,373,852 

Secondary 771,687  961,786 

Universities  and  colleges 53,623  149,700 

Professional  schools 11,517  63,256 

Normal  schools 62,428  70,439 

16,968,560  18,619,033 

This  shows  a  distribution  of  enrollment  as  follows: 

In  public  In  public  and 

schools  private  schools 

Elementary 94.7%  93.3% 

Secondary 4.6%  5.2% 

Universities  and  colleges,  profes- 
sional   schools,    and    normal 

schools 7%  1.5% 

100.  100. 

These  percentages  show  the  proportion  of  pupils  found  in  the 
various  grades  at  a  given  time,  but  they  do  not  properly  indicate 
the  proportion  of  pupils  who  go  forward  from  one  grade  to  an- 
other. That  is  to  say,  the  statement  that  at  any  time  ninety- 
four  per  cent  of  our  pupils  are  in  the  elementary  schools  is  not 

12 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

have  argued  that  because  democracy  has  formulated 
the  ambitious  programme  to  try  "  to  prepare  all  Amer- 
ican boys  and  girls  for  a  life  of  unprecedented  free- 
dom, etc.,"  it  is  disloyalty  to  see  the  self-evident,  to 

equivalent  to  the  statement  that  ninety-four  per  cent  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  pupils  do  not  go  beyond  them. 

To  calculate  the  percentage  of  pupils  who  go  beyond  the  ele- 
mentary school,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain,  first,  the  total  num- 
ber of  pupils  entering  school  in  a  given  year,  and  second,  the  num- 
ber of  those  pupils  who,  some  years  later,  enter  secondary  schools. 
In  the  absence  of  these  exact  figures,  it  will  be  approximately 
correct  to  substitute  for  the  first,  the  number  of  all  pupils  in  the 
United  States  found,  in  any  given  year,  in  the  first-year  grade 
of  the  elementary  school,  and  for  the  second,  the  number  of  all 
pupils  in  the  United  States  found,  eight  years  later,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  secondary  school.  Even  these  figures  seem  unob- 
tainable at  the  present  time;  hence,  a  further  approximation  must 
be  made. 

The  following  deduction  is  submitted,  based  upon  statistics 
from  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

The  most  recent  figures  for  high  school  enrollment  are  for  the 
year  1907-8  (Report,  1908,  p.  859),  when  there  were  770,456 
pupils  enrolled  in  the  public  high  schools. 

In  1906-7  there  were  in  7,624  of  these  high  schools,  enrolling 
667,305  pupils,  288,748  pupils  in  the  first  year,  or  43.27  per  cent 
(p.  862).  Assuming  the  proportion  to  hold  for  the  following 
year  for  all  schools,  there  were  333,386  pupils  in  the  first  year 
of  the  high  school.  These  pupils  presumably  entered  the  ele- 
mentary school,  on  an  average,  eight  years  prior  to  1907—8,  or 
in  the  year  1899-1900. 

The  total  enrollment  for  the  year  1899-1900  in  our  public  ele- 
mentary schools  was  14,821,969  (Report,  1903,  p.  xix).  Figures 

13 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

admit  that,  as  a  matter  of  frigid  fact,  the  average 
American  boy  or  girl  simply  cannot  have  a  life  of  un- 
precedented freedom.  We  establish  our  premise :  any 
boy  or  girl  qualified  to  secure  and  appreciate  a  liberal 

as  to  the  distribution  of  these  pupils  among  the  various  grades 
are  not  at  hand,  but  for  the  year  1902  they  are  given  (Report, 
1903,  p.  xvi)  as: 

First  year  or  grade 5,149,296 

Second 2,912,462 

Third 2,426,263 

Fourth 2,168,956 

Fifth 1,288,114 

Sixth 700,885 

Seventh 405,693 

Eighth 323,607 


Total 15,375,276 

This  shows  33.5  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  the  first-year  grade. 
Assuming  that  this  percentage  held  for  the  year  1899-1900,  there 
were  in  that  year  4,965,360  pupils  in  the  first-year  grade. 

Roughly  speaking,  then,  the  350,000  pupils  now  entering  our 
American  high  schools  represent  a  survival  of  seven  per  cent  of 
the  5,000,000  pupils  who  entered  school  eight  years  ago. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  the  figure  5,000,000  somewhat  over- 
estimates the  admissions  to  the  elementary  schools  for  one  year. 
I  have  chosen,  therefore,  to  make  a  most  conservative  estimate, 
and  to  assume  that  3,500,000  more  closely  states  the  fact.  This 
would  amply  justify  the  statement  used  in  the  text  that  ninety 
per  cent  of  our  pupils  do  not  go  beyond  the  elementary  school. 
For  all  the  purposes  of  the  argument  of  these  three  chapters,  this 
statement  is  sufficiently  accurate;  indeed,  it  might  be  widely 
aberrant  without  invalidating  that  argument. 

14 


THE   ORGANIC   STRUCTURE 

education  should  be  offered  every  opportunity  to  pre- 
pare for  that  education.  Only  in  very  fine  print,  as  a 
footnote,  do  we  observe  that  only  one  boy  or  girl  in 
every  ten  is  so  qualified.  Then  we  debonairly  jump 
to  our  conclusion :  therefore,  every  boy  or  girl  should 
be  made  to  prepare  for  that  education.  Again,  only  in 
fine  print  do  we  note  that  nine  of  the  ten  leave  us  with 
only  this  "  preparation"  for  something  which  they  can- 
not have,  and  which  nearly  everyone  knew  all  the 
while  that  they  could  not  have;  and  what  is  more  un- 
fortunate, they  leave  us  without  having  made  proper 
preparation  for  that  which  is  their  inevitable  work  in 
life. 

It  is  surely  time  that  we  should  cease  to  deceive 
ourselves  or  attempt  to  deceive  others  with  the  theory 
that  because  we  call  our  nation  a  democracy,  a  repub- 
lic, a  United  States,  there  results  a  transformation  in 
the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  children  of  the  nation — a 
transformation  claimed  for  the  children  of  no  other 
country  the  world  over.  It  is  indeed  a  false  concep- 
tion of  democracy,  and  a  mistaken  notion  of  loyalty, 
which  proceeds  on  the  theory  that  this — a  mere  form 
of  government — can  in  itself  affect  the  fundamental 
distinctions  that  exist  in  human  individuals,  how- 
ever much  it  may  be  credited  with  having  amelio- 
rated the  conditions  of  existence  for  the  average 
man. 

15 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

The  continental  problem  is  to  reform  the  caste 
school  and  approach  the  Einheitsschule;  the  American 
problem  is  to  reform  our  wantonly  simple  Einheits- 
schule so  that  natural  distinctions  shall  be  rationally 
recognized.  The  continent  cannot  solve  her  problem 
by  taking  over  the  American  universal  school;  Amer- 
ica cannot  solve  her  problem  by  transplanting  to  her 
soil  the  German  school,  or  the  French,  or  the  Swed- 
ish, or  any  other.  Each  nation  must  work  out  its  own 
salvation  with  due  deference  to  the  national  tradi- 
tions and  the  national  institutions,  and  yet  each  na- 
tion must  cast  aside  provincialism  and  complacency 
and  accept  from  its  fellow  nations  whatever  may  be 
received  with  profit. 

We  may  certainly  benefit  from  the  continental  ex- 
perience. In  Germany,  the  man  whose  social  and 
financial  position  is  such  as  to  guarantee  his  inability 
to  give  his  son  a  liberal  education  sends  him  to  the 
people's  school,  where  he  is  frankly  accepted  as  he  ac- 
cepts himself,  as  one  in  need  of  such  training  as  shall 
best  prepare  him  during  his  few  school  years  for  the 
work  of  his  life  as  it  is  bound  to  be,  and  not  for  the 
work  of  some  other  boy's  life  as  it  may  be.  His  daily 
work  in  the  classroom  is  not  interrupted  by  the  pres- 
ence of  boys  scheduled  for  a  university  career.  Such 
boys  are  early  diverted  into  schools  which  specialize 
for  them,  and  their  progress  is  not  impeded  by  the 

16 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

pace  set  by  pupils  uninterested  in  acquiring  an  edu- 
cation for  which  they  can  have  no  reasonable  use. 

It  is  true  that  we  must  recognize  that  in  America 
social  orders  are  much  more  fluent  than  abroad,  that 
the  cobbler's  son  of  to-day  may  to-morrow  be  the 
mayor — alike  for  shoemaker  and  scion.  But  the  fact  is 
that  the  criticism  of  the  continental  arrangement  rests 
not  nearly  so  much  in  the  presence  of  separate  schools 
for  separate  needs  of  the  people  as  in  the  charge  of  a 
tuition  fee  in  the  higher  schools,  while  the  people's 
schools  remain  free.  It  is  really  this  fee  which  accen- 
tuates caste  abroad,  and  not  the  school  organization. 
We  have  already  put  our  public  schools  of  all  grades 
on  a  no-tuition  basis,  so  that  we  are  in  little  danger 
of  ever  falling  into  this  form  of  caste-encouraging 
blunder. 

Even  under  our  present  organization  we  have  come 
to  recognize  the  need  of  differentiation  in  high-school 
work,  but  in  providing  distinctive  courses  we  certain- 
ly have  sacrificed  none  of  our  democratic  freedom  nor 
have  we  in  any  measure  encouraged  caste.  Ask  this 
boy  which  high  school  he  attends  or  which  course  he 
is  pursuing  and  he  tells  you  the  classical  school  or 
course;  ask  the  boy  next  door  the  same  question  and 
he  replies  no  less  proudly — surely  with  no  thought  of 
self-depreciation — that  he  is  taking  the  commercial 
course.  Wherein  has  caste  been  established?  It 

17 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

would  be  a  very  different  matter  if,  following  con- 
tinental custom,  we  offered  one  of  the  courses  free  to 
all  and  charged  a  fifty-dollar  fee  to  the  other  groups 
of  students.  Then  might  the  one  student  look  down 
with  assumed  superiority  upon  the  other;  but  it  is 
just  at  this  point  that  our  sane  American  democracy 
intervenes  to  save  us  from  any  such  anticlimax.  In 
our  attitude  toward  our  high-school  students  we  have 
learned  to  estimate  with  equal  dignity  and  apprecia- 
tion all  honest  workers,  in  whatever  department  they 
are  found.  It  remains  for  us  to  carry  this  same  spirit 
into  our  treatment  of  the  elementary  school  problem. 
Our  problem,  then,  is  so  to  reorganize  our  American 
schools  that  the  child  who  is  scheduled  for  six  or  eight 
years  of  schooling  and  then  an  immediate  entrance 
into  vocational  life  shall  be  given  an  education  that 
shall  be  his,  and  not  the  education  that  belongs  to 
the  child  who  has  before  him  a  university  career  and 
the  preparation  therefor.  The  resultant  organization 
must  give  to  each  of  these  two  great  groups,  and  to  all 
of  those  intermediate  to  these,  that  education  which 
fits  its  special  needs.  It  must  provide  for  the  great 
ninety  per  cent  for  whom  education  is  a  duty,  and 
also  for  the  important  ten  per  cent  for  whom  it  is  a 
privilege;  and  must  so  provide  by  intelligent  differen- 
tiation and  not,  as  now,  by  the  offering  of  a  universal 
hodgepodge.  Moreover,  it  must  be  so  flexible  as  to 

18 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

permit  the  exceptional  child  to  transfer  from  one  of 
these  groups  of  pupils  to  another  upon  occasion;  this 
is  of  prime  importance,  for  we  must  riot  subject  our- 
selves to  the  criticism  now  fairly  leveled  against  the 
continental  systems  in  this  respect. 

No  doubt  exception  will  be  taken  in  many  quarters 
to  the  use  of  the  word  scheduled,  but  it  has  been  em- 
ployed advisedly  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  Many 
of  our  American  educational  thinkers  shrink  from 
using  such  a  word  as  this  on  the  ground  that  no 
American  child  is  to  be  considered  as  scheduled  for 
any  career  until  he  schedules  himself.  We  are  not 
justified,  they  say,  in  assuming  in  advance  that  his 
educational  programme  is  in  any  way  limited.  Now 
the  present  criticism  is  that  the  contrary  assumption  is 
an  unwarranted  one  because  it  is  an  ideal  one,  and 
that  our  present  school  organization  is  built  upon  this 
imaginary  ideal  instead  of  upon  a  known  state  of 
affairs.  We  are  forced  to  admit  that  the  actual  con- 
dition is  this:  that  only  a  tenth  of  our  children  take 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  phase  of  the  state's 
educational  purpose,  while  the  entire  after  life  of  the 
remaining  nine  tenths  is  built  upon  the  schooling  of 
the  elementary  grades  only. 

It  is  of  course  conceivable  that  a  supersocialistic 
government  might  take  over  the  entire  nurture  and 
education  of  all  the  children  of  its  people,  leaving 

19 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

little  or  nothing  of  responsibility  to  the  individual 
parents.  In  that  case  each  child  might  be  so  suc- 
cessfully evaluated  as  to  result  in  his  receiving  the 
education  which  exactly  fitted  his  innate  ability;  and 
we  can  imagine  further  that  under  this  form  of  pa- 
ternalistic government,  ninety  instead  of  ten  per  cent 
would  be  given  a  secondary  schooling.  But  why 
speculate  upon  an  all-providing  government  which 
has,  and  can  have,  no  actual  existence?  And  why 
maintain  a  school  organization  founded  upon  some 
such  speculation? 

The  fact  is  that  every  child,  short  of  those  subject 
to  charity,  is  dependent  upon  the  material  prosperity 
of  his  parents  for  the  measure  of  his  scale  of  living. 
His  clothing  is  costly,  his  fare  is  elaborate,  his  housing 
is  luxurious,  all  in  proportion  to  the  ambition  and 
ability  of  his  parents  to  provide  these  for  him — and 
it  is  the  same  with  his  education.  There  comes  a 
time  in  his  life,  of  course,  when  he  is  thrown  more,  if 
not  entirely,  upon  himself,  when  either  through  his 
own  industry  he  manages  to  provide  more  lavishly 
for  himself,  or  else  through  his  own  inertness  he  loses 
some  of  what  he  has  been  enjoying  at  his  father's 
expense. 

The  average  father  estimates  himself  pretty  ac- 
curately. The  moderate  wage-earner  to-day,  what- 
ever his  hopes,  knows  that,  for  all  practical  purposes, 

20 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

he  must  assume  that  eight  years  from  now  he  will 
still  be  a  moderate  wage-earner.  He  knows  that  if 
his  six-year-old  boy  were  to-day  fourteen,  it  would  be 
out  of  all  question  for  him  to  support  him  longer  as 
an  unproductive  member  of  his  family;  and  he  knows 
that  the  chances  are  many  to  one  that  the  same  will 
be  true  when  his  child  has  actually  reached  the  age 
of  fourteen.  He  clearly  recognizes  this  fact  and  we 
have  no  right  to  ignore  it.  Moreover,  we  may  recog- 
nize it  without  yielding  one  point  in  our  devotion  to 
the  true  ideals  of  our  American  democracy.  We  may 
recognize  it  without  assuming  that  the  boy  must 
necessarily  follow  his  father's  trade ;  we  may  recognize 
it  without  charging  the  father  with  neglect  of  duty 
or  even  implying  the  charge;  we  may  recognize  it 
without  relegating  the  boy  or  his  family  to  the  posi- 
tion of  a  subordinate  caste;  above  all,  we  may  recog- 
nize it  without  injury  to  the  occasional  boy  who 
decides  for  himself  that  he  will,  through  his  own 
efforts,  pursue  education  beyond  the  point  marked 
by  his  father's  interest  or  ability  to  provide. 

We  have  too  long  accepted  Huxley's  figurative  de- 
scription of  our  school  organization  as  "  a  great  edu- 
cational ladder  with  one  end  in  the  gutter  and  the 
other  in  the  university."  When  we  recover  from  the 
anaesthesia  induced  by  the  implied  compliment  and 
begin  to  study  the  picture,  the  fact  is  revealed  that 

21 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

our  children  are  climbing  this  ladder  with  some  rather 
disastrous  results.  We  see  the  ladder  with  one  end 
planted  in  the  "gutter,"  if  you  will  have  it  so,  and 
the  other  end  leaning  against  the  university  portal. 
Below  the  university  floor  in  the  house  of  life,  however, 
are  several  others,  the  high-school  graduates'  floor,  the 
grammar-school  graduates'  floor,  the  elementary  vo- 
cational floor;  and  as  we  come  down  through  the  build- 
ing we  notice  that  the  crowd  increases  wonderfully 
until  you  find  some  four  fifths  of  all  the  inhabitants 
occupying  the  first  floor.  But  the  curious  thing  is 
that  as  you  come  down,  the  ladder  stands  farther 
away  from  the  building.  Shall  we  picture  it  a  little 
more  clearly?  (See  diagram  p.  23.) 

The  disaster  is  shown  in  the  thousands  of  children 
who  are  jumping  or  tumbling  from  the  educational 
ladder  to  the  first  floor,  landing  approximately  upon 
their  feet  rather  by  virtue  of  the  natural  toughness 
and  agility  of  the  human  youth  than  by  any  foresight 
of  our  school  administration. 

We  notice  two  saving  features  in  this  diagram  in 
the  form  of  two  supplementary  ladders.  Our  typical 
secondary  schools  offer  to  their  students  a  variety  of 
courses  so  that  they  may  prepare  either  for  college  or 
for  the  business  life  which  lies  before  them  at  the  end 
of  their  high-school  career.  They  may  choose  the  ap- 
propriate ladder  before  mounting,  and  on  it  climb  to 

22 


Occupied  by 
those  doing 
university  or 
coordinate 
work. 

Fourth  Floor. 


Occupied  by 
those  who  enter 
business  upon 
graduation 
from  the  high 
school. 


Third  Floor. 


Occupied  by 
those  who  enter 
business  upon 
graduation 
from  the  ele- 
mentary school. 


Second  Floor. 


Occupied  by 
those  who  must 
leave  school  as 
early  as  the  law 
permits. 


First  Floor. 


THE  BUILDING 

WE  CALL 

LIFE. 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

their  natural  goal.  It  is  true  that  there  are  a  few  stu- 
dents who,  going  through  high  school  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  passing  on  to  college,  find  that  the  college 
course,  for  some  personal  reason,  is  closed  to  them. 
These  must  jump  to  the  nearest  life  platform,  but 
there  are  considerably  fewer  making  the  jump,  and 
the  jump  is  not  so  long  a  one  as  in  the  great  disaster 
nearer  ground. 

The  other  cross  ladder  is  a  private  one,  but  one  em- 
ployed by  thousands  of  boys  and  girls  who  have  been 
marooned  on  the  big  ladder,  who  dislike  the  flying 
leap  to  the  first  floor,  and  whose  parents,  having  al- 
ready paid  a  school  tax  for  something  they  did  not 
want,  yet  have  enough  left  over  to  buy  that  which 
they  do  want.  This  ladder  is  the  private  commercial 
school,  thriving  throughout  the  land,1  which  takes  the 
graduates  of  our  public  elementary  schools  and  pro- 
ceeds in  a  few  months  to  teach  them  to  write  a  busi- 
ness letter  and  to  add  a  column  of  figures. 

Now  both  of  these  short  ladders  have  proven  to  be 
safe  and  serviceable  and  are  already  in  a  position  of 
stable  equilibrium.  Why  shall  we  be  so  timid  about 
running  out  one  or  two  more?  Why  not  run  one  di- 

'  Over  150,000  students  were  enrolled  in  commercial  and 
business  schools  in  the  United  States,  1907-8. — Commissioner's 
Report,  1908,  p.  930.  This  does  not  include  the  great  number 
reached  by  the  correspondence  schools. 

24 


The  Gutter 


Second  Floor 


Occupied  by 
those  who  must 
leave  school  as 
early  as  the  law 
permits. 


First  Foor. 


THE  BUILDING 

WE  CALL 

LIFE. 


25 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

rectly  from  the  gutter  to  the  first  floor  and  another 
from  the  gutter  to  the  second  floor?  For  fear — and 
this  seems  to  be  the  only  substantial  argument  heard 
against  it — that  there  may  be  a  few  soaring  souls 
who,  finding  themselves  well  up  one  of  these  lad- 
ders, discover  that  they  ought  to  be  on  the  uni- 
versity ladder.  They  may  easily  be  accommodated 
by  giving  them  a  public  return  ladder,  or  they  might 
be  left  to  patronize  private  ladders  as  we  now  leave 
so  many  to  do  who  are  traveling  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Compare  this  proposed  arrangement  with 
the  present.  (See  diagram  p.  25.) 

We  have  eliminated  the  great  disaster,  and  at  the 
worst,  we  have  substituted  for  the  private  ladder, 
carrying  thousands,  another  private  ladder — though 
we  might  well  make  it  a  public  one — carrying  scores. 
Is  this  to  be  construed  as  an  unwarranted  assault  upon 
the  bulwarks  of  democracy? 

It  may  be  that  experiment  would  prove  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  start  the  supplementary  ladder  from 
the  gutter  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results  at  a  min- 
imum of  stress  in  reorganization.  Very  likely  all 
groups  of  pupils  might  be  kept  at  the  same  work  at 
the  same  pace  for  the  first  two,  three,  or  four  years  of 
school.  As  to  this,  however,  we  can  make  no  dogmatic 
prophecy.  We  are  bound  to  suspend  judgment  on 
this  point  until  sufficiently  extensive  experimentation 

26 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

provides  us  with  adequate  data  upon  which  to  gener- 
alize. 

The  National  Education  Association,  at  its  1909 
convention,  unanimously  adopted  a  "  Declaration  of 
Principles  and  Aims"  which  throughout  breathes  a 
noble  spirit  of  democracy.  "Our  free  schools,"  it 
says,  "must  advance  along  the  lines  of  educational 
democracy  in  the  sense  that  they  must  provide  equal 
educational  opportunities  to  all."  However  hearty 
may  be  our  assent  to  this  statement,  it  still  remains 
for  us  to  make  a  conscientious  attempt  to  discover  in 
what  "equal  educational  opportunities"  really  con- 
sist. Certain  it  is  that  we  are  not  giving  such  equal 
opportunities  when  we  say  to  ten  per  cent  of  our  chil- 
dren "The  education  you  desire  is  freely  yours,"  and 
to  the  ninety  per  cent  "  You,  too,  are  welcome  to  as 
much  of  this  education  provided  for  the  ten  per  cent 
as  you  care  to  take,  but  you  must  not  expect  any- 
thing meeting  your  distinctive  needs."  Indeed,  this 
bears  all  the  marks  of  a  purpose  to  establish  caste, 
although  we  well  know  that  such  a  purpose  has  been 
farthest  from  the  thoughts  of  the  organizers  and  ad- 
ministrators of  our  schools. 

This,  then,  is  the  greatest,  the  fundamental  prob- 
lem of  our  elementary  schools.  Until  it  is  solved  the 
most  important  of  our  other  problems  stand  in  abey- 
ance. In  particular,  the  problems  of  the  curriculum 

27 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

and  of  moral  training  are  irrevocably  dependent  upon 
this  one.  Or,  to  make  a  better  statement  by  trans- 
posing the  equation,  an  overwhelming  difficulty  is 
introduced  into  the  solution  of  these  two  problems  by 
our  failure  to  recognize  this  fundamental  defect  in 
our  school  organization,  and  the  pity  of  it  is  that  this 
disturbing  factor  may  readily  be  eliminated.  For 
the  repair  of  this  defect  is  entirely  a  question  of  senti- 
ment, intention,  and  authority;  in  the  working  out  of 
the  details  it  would  seem  to  present  no  serious  tech- 
nical difficulties. 

It  is  a  question  of  sentiment  because  educational 
leaders  have  not  yet  learned  to  face  bravely  such  facts 
as  this:  the  American  child  does  not  schedule  himself; 
he  is  scheduled  by  heredity  and  by  circumstance.  It 
is  a  question  of  sentiment  because  as  yet  the  call  of 
the  demagogue  meets  so  large  a  measure  of  unthink- 
ing response  when  he  talks  glibly  of  a  liberty,  frater- 
nity, and  equality,  the  truest  and  highest  interpreta- 
tion of  which  is  beyond  his  own  powers  of  imagination. 
It  is  a  question  of  intention  because  once  the  Ameri- 
can people  sense  the  defects  in  their  school  organiza- 
tion, they  will  set  about  to  repair  it.  It  is  a  question 
of  authority  because  once  they  determine  to  perfect 
the  organization,  they  will  command  their  educational 
officials  to  do  the  work. 

Once  given  this  command,  this  authority,  based 
28 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

upon  the  aroused  sentiment  of  the  people,  our  school 
administrators  will  have  little  difficulty  in  working 
out  the  details  of  reorganization. 

The  movement  of  our  pupils  along  the  education- 
al rails  is  a  matter  of  routes  and  speeds.  We  must 
first  reform  our  routes  so  that  each  pupil  is  taking 
approximately  that  one  which  leads  to  his  normal 
destination.  In  this  we  must  reform  our  curric- 
ulum for  both  the  child  booked  for  the  secondary 
route  and  the  one  booked  for  the  elementary  route. 
As  to  the  latter,  I  have  reserved  the  second  chapter 
for  a  discussion  of  his  needs.  As  to  the  former,  only 
a  hint  of  possible  reform  is  here  given  and  that  by  a 
single  illustration.  The  French  and  the  Germans 
have  satisfied  themselves  that  the  time  to  start  the 
boy  on  his  secondary  route  is  not  at  the  end  of  his 
eighth  school  year  but  at  the  end  of  the  fourth.  One 
result  is  that  the  German  gymnasial  student,  for  in- 
stance, is  given  in  his  fifth  school  year  eight  periods 
a  week  of  Latin  or  six  periods  of  French.  Contrast 
this  with  our  American  scheme  which  keeps  our  boy 
waiting  four  years  before  he  gets  his  smattering  of  a 
foreign  language. 

Next  we  must  reform  our  speed  laws.  The  strug- 
gling and  sincere  attempts  already  made  to  solve  this 
problem  of  speed  regulation  foreshadow  what  might 
be  done  in  this  respect  if  their  authors  had  freedom 

29 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

of  manipulation  commensurate  with  the  gravity  of 
the  problem.  It  is  needless  to  review  here  any  of  these 
schemes;  they  must  at  best  remain  makeshifts  until 
we  strike  deeper  at  the  problem  and  get  authority  to 
use  our  schoolhouses,  our  school  materials,  our  school 
moneys  with  the  same  degree  of  freedom  which  the 
trainmaster  has  in  directing  the  movements  of  his 
rolling  stock  and  equipment. 

We  have  long  been  accustomed  to  regard  man  in 
his  threefold  make-up,  mental,  moral,  and  physical. 
So  long  have  we  had  this  trinity  of  words  incorporated 
in  our  daily  speech  that  we  have  grown  careless  in 
their  use  and  prone  to  overlook  their  vital  significance. 
Only  in  recent  decades  has  there  been  in  school  man- 
agement a  practical  recognition  of  the  necessity  for  a 
balanced  culture  of  these  three  attributes.  Mental 
training  has  taken  a  long-distance  precedence  over 
moral  nurture  and  physical  development  in  every  con- 
sideration of  our  public  schools.  To  offset  this,  how- 
ever, there  is  evidenced  to-day  a  very  determined  effort 
in  many  directions  to  reduce  the  emphasis  usually 
placed  upon  the  training  of  the  intellect  and  to  divert 
a  proper  amount  of  attention  to  physical  and  moral 
development.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  recognition  of 
the  inevitable  interdependence  of  the  three  phases,  as 
we  find  it  stated  in  such  self-evident  propositions  as 
that  an  unsound  body  cannot  ordinarily  support  a 

30 


THE   ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

sound  mind,  that  moral  delinquencies  may  be  due  to 
physical  deficiency,  that  the  intellectual  giant  may 
yet  be  a  moral  coward,  etc. 

Of  these  three  groups  of  problems,  that  dealing  with 
the  physical  welfare  of  the  child  seems  most  hopeful 
of  solution.  In  the  first  place,  this  is  the  only  one  of 
the  three  groups  which  is  in  any  measure — though  not 
entirely — independent  of  the  organic  structure  of  the 
school  system.  The  hygiene  of  the  child  who  is  set  at 
the  wrong  intellectual  tasks  or  is  put  to  doing  his  work 
in  the  wrong  way  is  not  so  very  different  from  the  hy- 
giene of  the  child  who  is  undergoing  a  normal  mental 
training.  Hence,  whatever  reforms  must  yet  be  made 
in  the  direction  of  school  hygiene  and  physical  culture 
need  not  wait  upon  the  reform  in  school  organization. 

Moreover,  there  are  few  unsettled  points  along  the 
line  of  progress  in  physical  education.  The  laws  of 
physical  growth  have  been  well  established  and  clear- 
ly formulated,  there  is  a  large  and  powerful  body  of 
medical  experts  constituting  the  natural  leaders  in  the 
movement  for  improvement,  and  there  is  little  room 
for  argument  as  to  the  proper  hygienic  conditions  un- 
der which  people  should  work.  As  fast  as  the  state 
makes  the  necessary  financial  outlay  for  bettered  con- 
ditions in  respect  to  physical  education  and  physical 
environment,  those  betterments  can  be  materialized, 
for  the  technical  difficulties  are  few.  We  have  such 

31 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

encouraging  signs  as  the  organization  of  the  American 
School  Hygiene  Association,  in  1907,  and  of  kindred 
influences,  working  for  improvement  in  material 
school  equipment.  It  is  evident  that  the  idea  of 
formal  gymnastics  as  a  necessary  means  to  physical 
training  is  increasingly  accepted  as  a  part  of  pedagogic 
dogma.  In  the  language  of  Dr.  Payne,  "  it  seems  fair- 
ly settled  in  the  public  mind  that  the  school  shall  pro- 
vide for  the  child  a  physical  training  to  parallel  his 
mental  training.  .  .  .  Evidently  the  time  has  already 
come  when  a  school  to  be  called  progressive  must  make 
provision  for  some  sort  of  physical  culture."  1 

Doubtless  there  is  need  for  conscientious  study  of 
pedagogic  technique  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  direct- 
ors of  physical  culture,  but  it  may  be  safely  assumed 
that  no  one  more  fully  recognizes  this  need  than  they 
themselves.  It  may  be  many  years  before  the  rights 
of  the  child  to  his  physical  education  are  fully  assured 
to  him,  but  annually  our  schoolhouses  are  improving 
in  quality,  our  people  are  more  and  more  appreciative 
of  the  importance  of  hygienic  protection  and  physical 
training,  and  our  communities  are  increasing  their 
financial  support  of  the  public  schools.  Along  this 
line  we  may  well  be  optimistic  in  our  hope  for  the 
future. 

«  Bruce  Ryburn  Payne :  "  Public  Elementary  School  Curricula," 
Silver,  Burdett,  1905,  p.  24. 

32 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

But  when  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  other  two 
phases — mental  and  moral  development — we  are  in- 
clined to  be  less  sanguine.  For  both  of  these  are  inti- 
mately dependent  upon  the  organic  structure  of  the 
school  system,  and  so  long  as  that  structure  stands 
aslant  we  cannot  hope  for  rectangular  solution  of  the 
problems  of  mental  and  moral  training.  As  to  the 
latter  of  these  we  must  note,  as  an  additional  difficulty, 
that  the  proposition  that  moral  training  is  a  legitimate 
function  of  the  public  school  is  by  no  means  es- 
tablished. Dr.  Butler  proclaims  that  "  That  democ- 
racy alone  will  be  triumphant  which  has  both 
intelligence  and  character.  To  develop  them  among 
the  whole  people  is  the  task  of  education  in  a  democ- 
racy."1 

Other  writers  drive  home  this  same  thought,  as  for 
instance  Hughes  and  Klemm,  who  say :  "  Every  school 
must  have  a  twofold  object,  (1)  to  give  technical 
knowledge  and  train  the  intellect,  and  (2)  to  ennoble 
the  soul  and  establish  character. "  2  The  pulpit  preach- 
er and  the  lay  speaker  reiterate,  amplify,  and  vivify 
this  proposition  day  after  day.  We  cannot  say  that 
they  are  unheard,  nor  that  thoughtful  men  do  not 

1  Nicholas  M.  Butler:  "The  Meaning  of  Education,"  Macmillan, 

1906,  p.  101. 

2  "Progress  of  Education  in  the  Century,"  Linscott  Pub.  Co., 

1907,  p.  447. 

33 


PROBLEMS  OF   THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

promptly  accept  the  thesis  that  character  training 
should  be  a  vital  aim  of  the  school. 

But  who  would  venture  the  assertion  that  the  aver- 
age man  is  very  effectively  impressed?  It  is  to  be 
feared  that  to  his  mind  the  school  is,  in  return  for 
his  taxes,  to  teach  his  boy  arithmetic,  not  integrity; 
writing,  not  righteousness;  reading,  not  religion;  and 
mental  acumen,  not  moral  insight.  And  can  we 
much  blame  him  so  long  as  the  school  itself  seems 
to  take  this  view;  so  long  as  the  school  officer  con- 
tinues to  ask  of  the  teacher,  "Why  did  your  class 
get  only  69.3  per  cent  on  this  grammar  test  when 
the  general  average  was  70.1  per  cent?"  and  never 
thinks  of  asking,  "  What  gain  in  honesty  and  self- 
control  have  you  effected  among  your  boys  this 
term?" 

If  we  were  willing  to  accept  as  the  idea  of  moral 
training,  of  character  building,  the  usual  content  of 
the  pedagogue's  time-worn  term  discipline,  we  would 
have  to  admit  that  the  school  is  permeated  with  the 
distinction  between  intellectual  and  moral  culture. 
Indeed,  instruction  and  discipline  are  universally 
contraposed  in  pedagogic  thought  and  we  even  go  to 
the  length  of  "rating"  a  teacher  in  each  of  these 
separately.  But  so  long  as  discipline  in  the  school 
sense  is  merely  synonymous  with  control — such  con- 
trol as  is  exercised  by  the  animal  trainer  over  his 

34 


THE  ORGANIC  STRUCTURE 

charges — we  cannot  admit  that  true  moral  training 
has  far  advanced. 

Having  distinguished  between  mental  and  moral 
training,  we  are  immediately  impressed  with  the  ab- 
sence of  any  consensus  of  conviction  as  to  the  treat- 
ment of  either  phase.  In  this  they  differ  from 
the  physical  phase :  for  instance,  we  well  know  that 
the  pupil's  eyes  must  be  protected — he  must  not 
read  badly  printed  text-books,  he  must  not  work 
facing  the  windows,  he  must  not  write  in  incor- 
rect posture,  etc. — all  of  this  and  very  much  more 
is  axiomatic.  But  there  is  no  great  body  of  axioms 
covering  the  training  of  the  intellect  and  the  will. 
Hence,  both  the  curriculum  and  moral  training,  the 
formulae  through  which  we  seek  the  development  of 
intellect  and  character,  must  be  regarded  as  prob- 
lems which,  so  long  as  they  remain  unsolved,  are 
legitimate  subjects  for  discussion. 

In  the  two  chapters  following,  the  relation  of  these 
problems  to  the  fundamental  one  of  the  form  of  school 
organization  will  receive  foremost  consideration. 


II 

THE  CURRICULUM 

DURING  the  many  decades  which  have  elapsed  since 
our  public  elementary  schools  first  took  form,  "the 
curriculum  has  undergone  many  modifications,  and 
received  additions,  until  it  has  lost  all  resemblance  to 
its  former  self."  1  "  From  the  testimony  of  men  who 
were  educated  in  the  common  schools  prior  to  1800, 
it  appears  that  the  course  of  instruction  was  limited 
to  spelling,  reading,  writing,  and  the  elements  of 
arithmetic."  2  This  seems  meager  indeed  when  com- 
pared with  our  present-day  elementary  curriculum. 

The  development  of  the  course  of  study  in  the 
direction  of  the  inclusion  of  new  subjects  is  signifi- 
cantly presented  in  the  comparative  tables  which 
appear3  in  Dr.  Payne's  interesting  and  valuable 
study,  "Public  Elementary  School  Curricula,"  with- 
out appreciative  reference  to  which  any  discussion  of 
the  subject  would  be  shamefully  lacking.  In  these 
tables  are  compared  the  curricula  of  1868,  1888,  and 

»  Dexter:  op.  cit.,  p.  155.  *  Ibid.,  p.  156. 

•  P.  53,  et  seq. 

36 


THE  CURRICULUM 

1904,  for  each  of  the  five  cities,  New  York,  Boston, 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  Louisville.  Perhaps  the  most 
striking  change  revealed  is  in  the  case  of  St.  Louis, 
where,  in  1868,  the  course  consisted  of  but  seven 
grades.  Reading,  arithmetic,  physical  training,  and 
singing  appeared  in  all  seven,  and  writing  in  all  but 
the  first ;  spelling  was  provided  in  three  grades,  decla- 
mation and  geography  each  in  four;  while  grammar  and 
history  for  the  seventh  year  only,  completed  the  list. 
In  1904,  in  an  eight-year  course,  reading,  arithmetic, 
physiology,  and  singing,  as  before,  together  with 
writing  and  four  new  subjects — morals  and  manners, 
language,  nature  study,  and  drawing — making  a  total 
of  nine  subjects,  are  found  in  all  grades.  Geography 
has  extended  to  six  grades,  history  to  two,  and  spell- 
ing to  seven,  while  grammar  and  declamation  as 
separate  subjects  have  disappeared. 

We  may  note  a  corresponding  variation  among  the 
courses  of  study  of  the  present  day  throughout  the  dif- 
ferent cities.  For  instance,  in  addition  to  the  ortho- 
dox subjects,  Boston  introduces  bookkeeping;  Chicago, 
German  and  Latin;  Kansas  City,  civil  government; 
San  Francisco,  cooking;  New  York,  civics,  algebra, 
English  history,  and  options  in  foreign  languages. 

The  changes  in  the  content  of  the  curriculum, 
variant  both  as  to  time  and  locality,  have  not  been 
brought  about  except  after  strenuous  conflict  between 

37 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

conservative  and  radical  forces.  Circumagitating 
this  conflict,  which  has  by  no  means  ended,  there  has 
developed  a  technical  terminology  to  which  passing 
reference  must  be  made. 

The  utilitarian  aim  in  public  education  has  so  strong 
a  grip  upon  popular  opinion  and  sentiment  as  to  have 
incorporated  into  our  daily  speech  the  expression  "  the 
three  R's,"  used  to  represent  the  alliterative  staples 
of  the  old  curriculum,  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic. In  more  refined  circles  this  is  replaced  by  the 
term,  "the  essentials,"  which  at  once  has  the  advan- 
tage of  saying  less  and  meaning  more,  and  so  is  grate- 
fully received  into  the  polite  society  of  pedagogic 
parlance.  The  essentials  have  been  alternately  lauded 
and  anathematized,  yet  the  fact  remains  "  that  to-day, 
even  after  all  our  talk  about  the  new  education,  the 
three  R's  are  in  the  ascendency."  1 

Another  way  of  indicating  the  contention  between 
conservatism  and  radicalism  is  to  distinguish  between 
the  "form"  and  the  "content"  studies.  Included  in 
the  former  are  those  of  the  old  discipline,  such  as 
arithmetic,  spelling,  and  writing;  and  in  the  latter, 
those  of  more  recent  introduction,  such  as  geography, 
literature,  and  history.  Although  the  reformers  have 
been  persistently  attacking  the  preponderance  of  the 

1  Payne:  op.  cit.,  p.  22. 
38 


UNIVFR5M 

OF 

r  THE  CURRICULUM 

formal  studies  in  the  curriculum,  the  programmes  for 
ten  typical  cities  1  show  "that  the  formal  studies  re- 
ceive sixty-two  per  cent  of  the  assigned  time,  while 
the  numerous  studies  known  as  the  content  studies 
receive  but  little  more  than  thirty  per  cent."  2 

Yet  another  style  of  referring  to  the  demands  of 
the  reformer  is  to  refer  to  him  as  pleading  for  "en- 
richment." New  York  stands  preeminent  among  the 
cities  for  the  high  degree  3  of  enrichment  of  its  course 

1  New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  Cleveland,  San  Francisco,  Co- 
lumbus, Ga.,  Louisville,  Jersey  City,  New  Orleans,  and  Kansas 
City,  Kan.  2  Payne:  op.  cit.,  p.  39. 

3  The  New  York  curriculum  boasts  twenty-five  subjects,  of 
which  twenty-one  are  compulsory.  They  are: 

1.  Physiology  and  Hygiene  14.  English  History 

2.  Organized  Games  15.  Civics 

3.  Composition  16.  Arithmetic 

4.  Reading  17.  Algebra 

5.  Memorizing  Selections  18.  Geometry 

6.  Grammar  19.  Nature  Study 

7.  Spelling  20.  Elementary  Science 

8.  Penmanship  21.  Drawing 

9.  German  22.  Sewing 

10.  French  23.  Cooking 

11.  Spanish  24.  Shop  Work 

12.  Geography  25.  Music 

13.  United  States  History 

Only  one  of  9,  10,  or  11,  optional  with  12,  in  eighth  year. 
Only  one  of  23  or  24,  in  seventh  and  eighth  years;  23  for  girls, 
and  24  for  boys. 

39 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

of  study,  and  the  question  arises,  in  the  words  of  Dr. 
Payne,  "Will  the  New  York  curriculum  in  its  ex- 
treme movement  toward  what  are  known  as  the 
content  studies  be  followed  by  these  superintendents 
[of  other  large  cities],  or  will  New  York  under  force  of 
popular  conservative  opinion  be  forced  to  retreat  from 
its  present  curriculum?"  l 

Let  us  glance  at  both  sides  of  the  question.  We 
may  look  upon  the  enrichment  of  the  curriculum  as 
the  result  of  a  philanthropic  desire  to  set  before  the 
elementary-school  pupil  a  more  varied  diet  than  he 
otherwise  would  enjoy.  Not  only  shall  he  be  fed  the 
meat  and  potatoes  of  the  essentials,  but  these  must  be 
supplemented  with  entrees  and  desserts  in  the  form 
of  content  studies,  so  that  when  he  arises  from  his 
educational  repast  he  shall  have  no  epicurean  desire 
unsatisfied.  Now  the  chief  danger  from  such  a  diet 
is  that  the  subject  may,  through  the  continued  gusta- 
tory appeals,  partake  too  freely.  Moreover,  in  his 
eagerness  to  get  all  that  is  put  before  him,  or  what  is 
more  likely,  in  the  zeal  of  his  servitors  to  have  him  not 
miss  anything  on  the  table,  he  is  quite  likely  to  bolt 
his  food  and  in  consequence  suffer  severely  from  in- 
digestion. A  too  highly  enriched  curriculum  meets 
its  chief  objection  in  the  danger  that  a  chronic  mental 
dyspepsia  will  seize  the  child. 

1  Op.  tit.,  p.  62. 
40 


THE  CURRICULUM 

State  it  less  figuratively  and  a  little  more  con- 
cretely. I  put  my  son  into  the  care  of  the  pedagogue. 
He  tells  me  that  the  boy  must  learn  to  read,  to  write, 
and  to  cipher,  to  which  I  cordially  assent,  and  he  pro- 
ceeds to  instruct  him  in  these  important  articles  of 
faith.  But  presently,  of  a  summer's  evening,  as  I  sit 
out  in  the  open  under  the  starlit  dome,  with  my  nine- 
year-old  on  my  knee,  I  find  myself  discoursing  with 
him  of  planets  and  satell  tes  and  comets  and  meteors 
and  signs  and  seasons,  in  all  of  which  he  seems  much 
interested.  I  know  that  the  hour  is  a  delightful  one 
to  me  and  surmise  that  it  has  been  equally  so  to 
him. 

Then  the  next  day,  as  I  recall  my  own  pleasure  and 
the  boy's  delight  and  interest,  I  grieve  to  think  that 
not  every  boy  can  sit  out  an  evening  with  his  father 
and  listen  to  the  music  of  the  spheres;  and  I  wonder 
why  the  schools  cannot  do  something  for  the  other 
boy,  and  for  my  own,  too,  for  I  am  unable  to  spend 
every  evening  with  h  m  and  the  stars,  and  so  I  pass 
my  thought  on  to  the  pedagogue.  "  Why  certainly," 
says  he,  "we  ought  to  teach  astronomy.  It  is  very 
important  and  instructive;  no  intelligent  man  should 
be  uninformed  in  the  subject;  I  will  introduce  it  at 
once."  And  next  there  is  complaint  that  my  son  has 
neglected  his  homework  in  astronomy,  and  that  he  had 
only  57  per  cent  in  the  last  examination  in  that  sub- 
4  41 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

ject.  Exaggerated?  Yes,  certainly.  No  elementary 
school  schedules  astronomy  as  a  formal  subject?  I 
know  that,  of  course.  But,  after  all,  is  this  so  very 
far  from  illustrating  the  spirit  which  has  prompted 
our  campaign  of  enrichment? 

To  have  a  first-hand  acquaintance  with  the  natural 
environment  is  very  desirable,  very  desirable;  the 
more  we  repeat  the  statement,  the  more  convinced 
are  we  that  it  is  not  only  very  desirable  but  absolutely 
indispensable.  Yes,  "  nature  study  "  must  go  into  the 
curriculum.  And  the  laws  of  physics,  an  under- 
standing of  which  is  so  necessary  to  a  proper  inter- 
pretation of  the  moving  world  about  us;  and  the  his- 
tory of  England,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  so  essential 
to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  history  of  our  own 
country;  and  the  elements  of  algebra,  without  which 
we  cannot  get  a  glimpse  of  the  glories  of  higher 
mathematics — all  these  subjects,  and  many  more, 
must  be  added  so  that  the  child  may  not  be  deprived  of 
anything  which  may  have  a  possible  value  to  him  in 
either  a  practical  or  a  cultural  sense.  And  so  he  is 
jerked  from  forty  minutes  of  this  to  twenty  minutes 
of  that,  to  thirty  minutes  of  something  else,  essentials 
and  non-essentials  all  held  officially  imperative,  until 
at  the  end  of  the  school  day  he  is  released,  merely  to 
transfer  his  activities  to  his  home,  with  an  armful  of 
text-books  and  the  demand  for  the  production  of  a 

42 


THE  CURRICULUM 

bulk  of  "home  work."  Can  we  wonder  that  the 
average  boy  or  girl  finally  goes  forth  from  our  ele- 
mentary school  possessed  of  an  ill-digested  jumble  of 
facts  and  fictions,  Jack  of  all  subjects,  but  master  of 
none?  This,  then,  is  the  case  against  the  enriched 
course  of  study. 

But  this  is  only  one  side  of  the  question.  If  enrich- 
ment has  its  risks,  certainly  impoverishment  is  not 
free  from  danger.  If  we  seek  relief  from  overfeeding 
and  indigestion,  we  cannot  find  it  in  malnutrition. 
The  child  for  whom  school  means  nothing  but  a  cease- 
less grind  in  the  machine  shop  of  the  formal  studies 
is  deserving  of  the  same  pity  which  we  accord  the  child 
employee  of  any  other  factory.  No  wonder  that  con- 
templation of  him  has  incited  the  indignation  of  the  re- 
former. No  wonder  that  in  the  name  of  Childhood  our 
curriculum  has  been  wrested  from  the  clutches  of  those 
who  would  make  of  it  a  treadmill.  Much  of  the  crit- 
icism of  the  curriculum-enricher  is  the  natural  out- 
break of  the  taskmaster  protesting  against  the  demand 
that  he  shall  learn  new  arts  and  new  manners.  This 
protest  takes  the  convenient  form  of  attacking  the 
"fads."  Indeed,  as  some  one  has  said,  the  chief  fad 
of  the  day  is  pounding  the  fads.  But  no  epigram- 
matic assault  upon  the  new  education  is  going  to  re- 
sult in  a  return  to  the  three  R's  as  the  sole  substance 
of  the  curriculum.  If  the  case  against  excessive  en- 

43 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

richment  is  strong,  surely  the  case  against  complete  im- 
poverishment is  equally  strong. 

Like  many  another  educational  problem,  this  of 
the  curriculum  has  both  its  ideal  and  its  practical 
phases.  The  closet  philosopher  may  evolve  a  paper 
curriculum  which  proves  flawless  when  tested  by  even 
the  highest  ideals  of  the  educational  theorists.  The 
private  tutor  responsible  for  the  progress  of  one  or  two 
children  in  a  wealthy  family  may  devise  a  course  of 
study  for  his  wards  which  may  quite  measurably  ap- 
proach the  ideal  schemes  offered  by  the  philosophers. 
But  the  school  board,  face  to  face  with  a  city  public- 
school  system,  encounters  a  very  different  problem. 
Here,  as  in  so  many  troublesome  places  in  school 
administration,  the  root  of  the  difficulty  is  financial, 
and,  carrying  out  the  figure,  two  main  branches  are  the 
burden  of  large  classes  and  the  handicap  of  untrained 
teachers. 

Of  course  each  of  these  terms  is  used  comparatively; 
a  large  class  is  large  only  when  contrasted  with  a 
smaller  one,  and  an  untrained  teacher  is  untrained 
only  as  we  consider  him  less  trained  than  another. 
Just  what  shall  constitute  a  normal  class  as  to  size  or 
a  normal  teacher  as  to  training,  is  open  to  argument. 
But  it  is  evident  that  in  order  to  increase  its  standard 
in  either  respect,  a  school  system  must  spend  more 
money.  As  compared  with  present  conditions,  con- 

44 


THE  CURRICULUM 

sider  a  school  system  wherein  all  teachers  possessed 
a  professional  training  equal  to  that  of  our  best  trained 
physicians,  and  wherein  no  class  exceeded  fifteen  in 
number.  Without  doubt  the  expense  would  be  at 
least  quadrupled,  but  can  we  not  also  assume  that 
there  would  be  a  commensurate  increase  in  effective- 
ness? Many  a  curriculum,  now  existing  only  on  paper, 
could  then  be  materialized  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of 
the  children.  But  the  mere  hope  that  we  may  some 
day  have  such  favorable  conditions  is  not  sufficient  to 
warrant  us  in  prescribing  a  curriculum  keyed  up  to 
those  imaginary  conditions,  but  actually  to  be  used 
under  practical  conditions  several  tones  lower  in  the 
scale.  Let  us  then  avoid  Utopian  visions  and  keep  to 
the  practical  view  of  the  problem. 

We  have  already  noted  the  fact  that  ninety  per  cent 
of  our  public-school  pupils  do  not  go  beyond  the  ele- 
mentary school.  For  the  ten  per  cent  who  do,  it  may 
be  that  the  average  course  of  study  is  fairly  well  adapt- 
ed, though  this  may  be  questioned.  At  any  rate,  in 
recognition  of  the  limits  of  the  present  discussion,  we 
will  not  give  the  point  further  attention.  Rather,  let 
us  consider  the  ninety  per  cent — one  would  naturally 
suppose  that  these  would  enlist  the  chief  interest  of 
the  school  administrators  when  they  manufacture 
courses  of  study — and  examine  more  closely  into  what 
is  the  opportunity  which  ought  to  be  offered  these  pu- 

45 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

pils.  The  hasty  sketch  which  we  have  already  drawn 
of  the  conflict  between  the  opposing  protectors  of  the 
curriculum  has  foreshadowed  the  fact  that  this  offer- 
ing should  be  of  two  distinct  kinds. 

Our  first  duty  is  to  train  the  child  in  the  use  of  cer- 
tain tools  in  order  that  he  may  qualify  for  an  intelli- 
gent and  profitable  share  in  the  world's  work.  He 
must  learn  to  read  and  to  write.  These  two  essen- 
tials, which  include  spelling,  should  be  studied  until 
they  become  habits,  until  there  is  an  immense  group 
of  automatic  reactions  set  up,  so  that  the  printed  word 
calls  forth  easy  and  rapid  rendering  either  orally  or 
mentally,  and  the  need  for  expression  impels  the  hand 
to  write  in  accordance  with  form  conventional  as  to 
spelling,  penmanship,  and  the  arrangement  of  a  social 
or  business  letter.  Added  to  these  are  certain  other 
elementary  habits  which  must  be  acquired.  One  of 
these  is  the  ability  to  express  oneself  in  well-formed 
sentences,  without  hesitation  and  without  violation 
of  the  ordinary  rules  of  grammar.  Another  is  the 
ability  to  perform  simple  arithmetical  computations 
and  to  reason  rigorously  in  simple  practical  problems 
involving  numbers.  A  thorough  development  of  these 
habits  will  enable  a  child  forced  into  the  business 
world  at  the  age  of  fourteen  to  offer  a  satisfactory 
groundwork  upon  which  his  employer  can  train  him 
along  the  special  lines  of  his  employment,  and  upon 

46 


THE  CURRICULUM 

which  he  may  in  his  unemployed  hours  build  up  a 
technical  equipment  entitling  him  to  advanced  con- 
sideration in  the  labor  market. 

But  it  would  be  cruel  indeed  to  send  the  hyperes- 
sentialized  child  out  from  the  school  with  an  eye  blind 
to  the  beauties  of  nature,  with  an  ear  deaf  to  the  voice 
of  the  poet,  with  a  mind  dull  to  the  joys  of  the  phi- 
losopher, in  short,  with  a  soul  dead  to  the  things  of 
the  higher  and  broader  life  and  incapable  of  cultural 
growth.  Therefore  a  second  kind  of  offering  must  be 
provided — the  child  must  be  given  a  taste  and  an  ap- 
petite for  those  studies  which  are  outside  the  realm 
of  immediate  practical  utility. 

Now  these  two  offerings  represent  in  turn  just  what 
the  two  contesting  forces  have  been  fighting  for:  the 
conservatives  have  striven  to  magnify  the  essentials; 
the  radicals,  to  magnify  the  culture  studies.  But,  un- 
fortunately, the  struggle  has  resulted  in  a  compromise, 
when  what  is  needed  is  an  arbitrament;  and  it  is  the 
child  who  has  suffered  from  the  effects  of  the  compro- 
mise. It  is  as  though  the  educational  court  had  award- 
ed the  custody  of  the  child  to  the  joint  guardianship 
of  the  utilitarian  and  the  culturist  with  the  result  that 
each  of  these  good  Samaritans  has  him  by  an  arm  and 
is  tugging  at  him  hourly  with  unremitting  attention. 
A  saner  decree  would  be  to  grant  to  each  of  his  guard- 
ians full  control  of  the  child  for  a  specified  number 

47 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

of  hours  daily,  and  to  hold  each  responsible  for  the 
child's  progress  along  his  special  line. 

Let  us  particularize.  There  are  two  great  harms 
done  the  child  as  a  result  of  the  compromise  between 
the  two  ideas  of  utility  and  culture,  namely,  the  harm 
of  teaching  the  utilities  in  the  cultural  spirit  and  the 
harm  of  teaching  the  culture  studies  in  the  utility 
spirit. 

The  difficulty  that  is  introduced  into  the  teaching 
of  the  utility  subjects  by  the  spirit  of  the  new  educa- 
tion is  multifold.  First  of  all  there  is  the  difficulty 
with  the  time  schedule.  In  their  zeal  to  enrich  the 
curriculum  through  the  introduction  of  new  subjects, 
the  programme  makers  have  been  obliged  to  abbre- 
viate the  time  allowed  the  essentials,  and  yet  the  work 
to  be  done  in  these  subjects  has  not  been  reduced 
materially  if  at  all.  This  is  axiomatic :  a  twenty-five- 
hour  week  given  over  to  fifteen  subjects  cannot  allow 
each  subject  so  long  a  period  as  when  the  same  week 
is  apportioned  to  ten  subjects. 

In  the  second  place,  the  more  recently  developed 
methods  appropriately  applicable  to  the  teaching  of 
the  content  studies  have  been  carried  over  into  the 
teaching  of  purely  formal  studies.  The  method  of  the 
recitation  in  geography,  for  instance,  has  extended  to 
those  subjects  whose  chief  aim  is  the  development  of 
formal  habits;  and  the  spirit  of  laissez  faire  has 

48 


THE  CURRICULUM 

superseded  that  of  drill.  In  fact,  good  old-fashioned 
drill  is  at  a  discount,  and  emphasis  of  its  importance 
is  too  frequently  rated  as  a  punishable  educational 
heresy. 

A  few  pages  back  the  utilitarian  essentials  of  the 
curriculum  were  outlined.  That  presentment  occu- 
pies but  a  few  lines  of  print,  and  yet  it  constitutes  in 
itself  a  course  of  study  which  well  might  employ  a 
teacher  and  her  forty  or  fifty  pupils  for  three  hours  a 
day  throughout  six  or  more  years  of  the  elementary 
school  course.  For,  and  this  is  the  rock  on  which  the 
enriched  curricula  go  to  wreck,  there  is  nothing  in  the 
new  education  which  has  succeeded  in  nullifying  the 
law  of  habit-building,  so  accurately  expressed  by  Dr. 
Bagley  as  "  Focalization  of  consciousness  upon  the 
process  to  be  automatized,  plus  attentive  repetition  of 
this  process,  permitting  no  exceptions  until  automa- 
tism results."  l  The  italics  are  my  own. 

Charles  Dickens,  the  lay  teacher,  had  no  obscure 
notions  on  this  subject.  Reread  your  "Oliver 
Twist"  and  along  toward  the  end  of  the  ninth  chap- 
ter you  will  recall  how  Mr.  Fagin  drilled  his  pupils, 
through  "a  very  curious  and  uncommon  game"  in 
the  art  of  extracting  "with  the  most  extraordinary 

1  William  C.  Bagley:  "Classroom  Management,"  Macmillan, 
1907,  p.  16. 

49 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

rapidity,  snuffbox,  note  case,  watchguard,  shirt- 
pin,  pocket  handkerchief,  even  the  spectacle  case," 
from  the  pockets  of  "the  merry  old  gentleman." 
Nowhere  throughout  the  account  do  we  hear  of  prep- 
aration, presentation,  association,  but  we  do  learn 
that  this  game  was  repeated  "a  great  many  times." 
Even  sixty  pages  farther  along  in  the  narrative  we 
are  told  that  the  two  boys,  not  what  we  would  call  a 
large  class,  "played  the  old  game  with  the  Jew  every 
day."  Drill,  drill,  and  more  drill,  was  the  method, 
and  carefully  indeed  did  Fagin  the  pedagogue  avoid 
the  modern  educator's  curious  vagary  of  supposing 
that  if  a  lesson  is  "presented"  once  to  a  class  it  is 
sure  to  be  at  the  recall  of  all  the  members  of  the 
class  weeks  afterwards. 

Moreover,  from  the  practical  exigencies  of  school 
management,  the  effects  of  insufficient  drill  are  sadly 
cumulative.  A  certain  standard  in  a  subject  is  fixed 
for  a  certain  grade.  At  the  end  of  the  term  an  ortho- 
dox proportion  of  pupils  must  be  promoted  out  of  that 
into  the  succeeding  grade.  These  pupils  are  duly 
forwarded.  The  requirements  of  the  new  grade  are 
definitely  scheduled  on  the  supposition  that  the  class 
which  the  teacher  confronts  is  grounded  in  the  pre- 
liminary work  and  prepared  to  take  up  the  advanced 
work  without  review  of  the  old.  This  assumption  is 
quite  contrary  to  the  fact,  as  practical  class  teachers 

50 


THE  CURRICULUM 

well  know.  There  is  no  time  in  the  new  grade  to  rivet 
the  work  presented  in  the  grade  below. 

From  grade  to  grade  the  difficulty  accumulates,  the 
pupil's  incompetency  increasing  as  the  square  of  his 
distance  from  the  starting  point  of  his  school  career. 
We  are  speaking,  be  it  remembered,  of  the  ninety  per 
cent.  In  their  interest  the  work  demanding  drill 
should  be  reduced  in  quantity.  For  instance,  in 
mathematics,  cut  out,  not  a  topic  here  and  there,  but 
fully  half  of  the  work  ordinarily  presented,  retaining 
at  least  all  of  the  time  now  allotted  to  the  subject,  and 
then  teach  that  half. 

To  give  but  a  single  illustration  of  the  present  situa- 
tion, contemplate  the  eighth-year  girl,  the  girl  whose 
destiny  it  is  to  leave  school  within  a  year  to  busy 
herself  in  the  home  or  in  outside  vocational  employ- 
ment, and  picture  her  as  she  flounders  around  in  a 
swirling  Sargasso  of  cylinders,  cones,  trapezoids, 
pi-r-squares,  x — y's,  and  yet  is  quite  incompetent  to 
audit  her  mother's  grocery  bill — I  mean  to  add  it  up 
once  and  be  sure  it  is  correct.  She  has  been  taught 
the  distinction  between  adjectives  and  adjective 
participles,  that  is,  the  distinction  has  been  duly  and 
pedagogically  " presented"  to  her,  but  if  she  is  not 
serious-minded,  it  dwells  with  her  but  fleetingly,  and 
if  she  is,  worse  luck,  it  takes  the  part  of  an  unbridled 
evil  spirit  in  her  troubled  dreams.  In  the  midst  of 

51 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

her  struggles  to  do  her  "home  work"  in  parsing, 
imagine  her  mother  saying  to  her,  offhandedly,  some 
evening:  "By  the  way,  daughter,  I  forgot  to  order 
some  white  muslin  when  I  was  at  Brown's  Emporium 
to-day.  Drop  them  a  note  and  ask  them  to  send  two 
yards  of  the  eight-cent  quality  to-morrow  when  they 
send  what  I  ordered  to-day.  Be  sure  that  they  send 
it  to-morrow  without  fail,  as  I  must  have  some  of  it 
to  mend  Robert's  shirt  that  he  tore  yesterday.  They 
can  charge  it,  of  course."  Do  you,  gentle  reader, 
picture  her  saying  cheerfully,  "Yes,  mother,"  and  in 
a  few  minutes  presenting  a  note  for  her  mother's  in- 
spection, concise,  correctly  worded,  legibly  written, 
and  properly  addressed?  If  so,  you  are  a  remarkably 
venturesome  optimist.  I  seem  to  hear  her  petulant 
appeals,  such  as:  "What  paper  shall  I  use?  Do  you 
spell  Emporium  with  a  u  or  an  o  ?  Is  this  the  19th? 
Shall  I  write  Tuesday  in  the  date?  Was  it  white  you 
said?  How  do  you  spell  muslin?  What  shall  I  tell 
them  about  Bob's  shirt?  Do  they  know  you  have  an 
account  there?"  ad  libitum  until  the  overworked 
mother  resolves  not  to  bother  daughter  another  time 
with  so  plebeian  a  task  while  she  has  verbals  and 
parallelograms  to  groom  for  to-morrow's  appearance 
at  school. 

Thus  far,  we  have  been  contemplating  the  damage 
done  to  the  utility  subjects  by  the  uncurbed  influence 

52 


THE  CURRICULUM 

of  the  enriching  subjects.  Conversely  the  new  and 
cultural  subjects  have  suffered  acutely  at  the  hands 
of  the  drillmasters.  For  teachers  of  the  old  school, 
the  time-hardened  drillers,  there  is  no  method  of 
attacking  any  subject  except  through  formal  teach- 
ing. Hence  we  see  cultural  studies  subjected  to  drill 
methods.  Even  if  such  a  teacher  waxes  enthusiastic 
over  the  new  subjects,  his  zeal  comes  perilously  near 
complying  with  Professor  Santayana's  definition  of 
fanaticism  which  he  says  "consists  in  redoubling 
your  effort  when  you  have  forgotten  your  aim." 

We  are  told  that  the  word  school  is  from  the 
Greek,  "a  transferred  use  of  o-%oX??,  spare  time, 
leisure."  Would  it  be  such  an  alarming  matter  if  we 
were  to  revive  this  idea,  and  frankly  treated  part  of 
our  school  day  as  leisure,  or  spare  time?  The  boy  or 
girl  who  is  one  of  the  fortunate  ten  per  cent,  scheduled 
for  higher  education,  may  perhaps  justifiably  be  put 
to  a  formal  and  persistent  study  of  the  cultural  sub- 
jects in  preparation  for  their  more  intensive  con- 
sideration later  on.  But  for  the  ninety  per  cent, 
may  we  not  safely  provide  the  environment  and  the 
seductive  atmosphere  of  culture  on  an  extensive  but 
necessarily  shallow  scale,  and  then  let  these  pupils 
browse  about,  under  skillful  guidance,  not  compelled 
to  absorb  it  all,  but  free  to  pick  and  choose  much  of 
it  for  themselves? 

53 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

No  one  person  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  evince 
an  absorbing  interest  in  all  departments  of  culture. 
Here  is  a  boy  who  delights  in  bees  but  eschews 
Browning;  here  is  another  who  relishes  Shakespeare 
but  hates  science.  Must  we  beat  and  hammer  each 
into  a  duplicate  of  the  other,  and  turn  him  out  a 
composite  pseudo-scientist  and  dilettante  litterateur? 
We  know  some  first-class  scientists  who  are  wretch- 
edly indifferent  to  Browning;  and  we  know  some  men 
of  letters  who  are  hopelessly  ignorant  of  the  habits  of 
bees;  and  yet  we  do  not  think  of  any  of  these  as  un- 
cultured. Is  it  not  more  reasonable  for  us  to  en- 
courage the  bee-boy  to  become  a  thoroughgoing 
scientist  and  the  Shakespeare-boy  to  become  a  thor- 
oughgoing student  of  literature?  As  Superintendent 
Chancellor  puts  it,  "The  general  fact  is  that  at  the 
present  time  the  fashion  in  the  schools  is  to  carry  out 
too  narrow,  too  uniform  a  curriculum.  It  needs  to 
be  broadened  and  enriched.  But  it  does  not  need  to 
be  increased  in  the  case  of  any  individual  child."  l 

The  culturist  must  abandon  his  hope  of  so  schooling 
our  children  that  they  may  go  forth  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  with  a  "finished"  education.  He  must 
modify  his  hope  so  that  it  may  reasonably  become  an 


1  William  E.  Chancellor:  "Our  Schools,  their  Administration 
and  Supervision,"  Heath,  1905,  p.  282. 

54 


THE  CURRICULUM 

expectation,  and  work  for  the  coming  of  the  day  when 
the  child  meets  his  practical  adult  world  equipped  in 
the  essential  utilities  so  that  his  material  progress 
is  assured,  and  yet  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  reading 
and  research,  of  discontent  with  the  limits  of  his  in- 
formation and  his  mental  grasp,  and  of  determination 
to  persist  in  his  self-education  all  the  days  of  his  life. 
Give  him  this  double  equipment,  and  you  will  be  giv- 
ing him  that  which  surely  the  average  public  ele- 
mentary school  of  to-day  lamentably  fails  to  give  him. 

These  two  main  purposes,  then,  must  we  have  in 
our  public  education:  to  teach  the  child  to  work  while 
he  works,  and  to  teach  him  to  browse  while  he 
browses;  to  teach  him  to  work  honestly,  earnestly, 
unremittingly,  and  effectively,  to  browse  intelligently, 
profitably,  and  joyously.  We  cannot  effect  these  two 
purposes  by  permitting  them  to  contest  throughout 
the  school  day  for  the  possession  of  the  child — there 
must  be  arbitrament,  not  contest. 

To  restate  it  in  more  specific  terms,  this  is  the  pro- 
gramme :  give  the  essentials  two  or  three  hours  of  the 
school  day;  give  the  culture  subjects  the  balance. 
Give  the  essentials  those  portions  of  the  morning  and 
afternoon  sessions  during  which  the  pupil  has  a  maxi- 
mum of  available  energy.  Cut  down  the  details  of 
the  essentials,  prune  them  to  a  very  simple  but  a  very 
definite  programme,  then  teach  thoroughly,  relentless- 

55 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

ly,  demanding  of  the  child  unremitting  and  increasing 
concentration  of  attention.  Let  this  complete  his 
school  day  so  far  as  hard  work  is  concerned,  leaving 
nothing  to  be  done  at  home.  For  the  balance  of  the 
day  introduce  him  to  the  content  studies  and  the  arts, 
but  extend  this  to  him  in  the  spirit  of  privilege,  not 
as  a  duty  or  task.  Give  him  a  reasonable  liberty, 
growing  in  amount  as  he  grows,  to  cull  for  himself  that 
which  his  individuality  demands.  Most  important  of 
all,  do  not  hamper  or  depress  him  with  home  work, 
tests,  or  examinations,  in  these  subjects. 

We  may  well  agree  with  Dr.  Hanus  when  he  says 
that  "The  education  demanded  by  a  democratic  so- 
ciety to-day  is  an  education  that  prepares  a  youth  to 
overcome  the  inevitable  difficulties  that  stand  in  the 
way  of  his  material  and  spiritual  advancement."  1 
But  we  need  to  make  very  sure  that  our  schools  are 
giving  a  true  preparation,  and  above  all,  that  they  are 
not  themselves  augmenting  the  "inevitable  diffi- 
culties." 

»  Paul  H.  Hanus:  "A  Modern  School,"  Macmillan,  1905,  p.  3. 


Ill 

MORAL  TRAINING 

HE  would  be  presumptuous  indeed  who  would 
undertake  to  discuss  with  any  air  of  finality  the  sub- 
ject of  moral  education.  The  large  and  excellent 
bibliography  on  the  subject  serves  to  emphasize  both 
the  seriousness  and  the  intricacy  of  the  problem  and 
the  earnestness  and  sincerity  of  the  attempts  at  its 
solution.  " Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools" 
is  of  such  gravity  as  to  have  elicited  a  volume, 1  bear- 
ing this  title,  in  which  are  gathered  five  from  out  of 
a  total  of  three  hundred  essays  which  were  submitted 
in  competition  for  cash  prizes  offered  by  a  citizen  of 
California.  Upon  reading  these  selected  essays  one 
is  impressed  not  alone  by  their  uniform  excellence  and 
scholarly  spirit,  but  perhaps  even  more  by  the  im- 
mensity and  complexity  of  the  subject,  as  evidenced 
by  the  variety  of  viewpoint,  of  method  of  treatment, 
and  of  suggested  solution,  advanced  by  the  different 
authors.  And  so,  I  repeat,  one  who  presumed  to 
dispose  of  this  subject  in  a  chapter  would  be  giving 

1  C.  E.  Rugh,  et  al,  Ginn,  1907. 
5  57 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

prima  facie  evidence  of  his  total  inability  to  discuss 
the  subject  at  all.  In  these  pages,  therefore,  the 
subject  can  be  touched  only  tangent ially,  and  the 
tangent  will  be  drawn  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
preceding  chapters. 

By  way  of  introduction,  we  may  remind  ourselves 
that  moral  development  is  a  threefold  phenomenon.1 
Conduct,  our  "three  fourths  of  life,"  is  the  index  by 
which  we  gauge  moral  ability  in  others.  Each  of  us 
has  a  supplementary  gauge  which  he  can  apply  to  him- 
self, but  to  himself  only,  namely,  the  quality  of  such  of 
his  own  thought  as  issues  not  in  specific  action.  But 
in  evaluating  the  moral  strength  of  our  fellows  we  have 
only  their  tangible  acts  upon  which  to  base  our  judg- 
ment. 

Conduct,  as  we  have  said,  has  a  trinitarian  basis:  it 
is  dependent  upon  the  exercise  of  intellect,  feeling,  and 
will.  The  child  may  be  both  quite  eager  and  quite 
willing  to  do  the  right  in  a  specific  case,  and  yet  be 
honestly  in  doubt  as  to  which  constitutes  the  right 
act;  that  is,  his  deficiency  is  not  one  of  feeling  or  of 
will,  but  of  knowledge.  Again,  he  may  know  per- 
fectly which  of  two  actions  is  the  right,  may  have  a 
will  thoroughly  capable  of  leading  him  to  one  or  the 
other  of  these  actions  as  he  may  decide,  and  yet  fail 

>  Cf.  "The  Management  of  a  City  School,"  p.  247,  et  seq. 
58 


MORAL  TRAINING 

through  an  utter  indifference  as  to  whether  his  acts 
are  right  or  wrong;  that  is,  his  intellect  and  his  will  are 
not  at  fault,  but  a  moving  feeling  for  the  right  is 
absent.  Or  again,  he  may  clearly  see  the  right,  may 
ardently  desire  to  do  the  right,  and  yet  find  himself 
too  weak-willed  to  do  that  which  his  intellect  and 
his  feeling  prompt  him  to  do. 

And  all  this  is  true,  of  course,  not  only  of  man  in  his 
childhood  but  throughout  the  entire  span  of  his  life. 
The  only  difference  is  that  the  school  and  the  home  are 
prone  to  assume  a  degree  of  moral  perfection  in  its  chil- 
dren which  it  rarely  demands  of  the  adult.  Witness  the 
mother  who  daily  exclaims :  "  I  don't  see  why  George 
acts  so,"  George  being  the  five-year-old  whose  de- 
ficiencies in  arithmetic  and  reading  are  taken  for 
granted,  whose  aesthetic  shortcomings  elicit  no  com- 
ment, and  yet  whose  moral  ability  is  regarded  as 
something  that  ought  to  grow  up  of  itself.  All  of 
which  suggests  that  if  the  school  is  to  concern  itself  at 
all  with  moral  training  it  must  consider  it  just  as 
seriously  as  it  does  the  training  of  the  pupil  in  intel- 
lectual acumen,  manual  skill,  or  art  appreciation. 

There  is  just  one  unanswerable  reason  why  the  school 
must  consider  the  moral  training  of  its  pupils,  and  that 
is  because  it  cannot  possibly  leave  it  unconsidered. 
The  child  is  bound  to  get  a  moral  training  of  some  kind 
wherever  he  goes;  he  is  particularly  sure  to  get  a  moral 

59 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

training  of  some  kind  when  he  goes  to  school.  So  that 
the  question  is  not,  "  Shall  the  school  give  moral  train- 
ing?" but,  "The  school  is  giving  moral  training;  what 
kind  shall  it  be?"  The  school  may  rightfully  be  held 
accountable  in  the  matter.  If  the  school  environment 
gives  a  moral  training  in  grade  below  that  of  the  child's 
environment  outside  the  school,  then  must  the  school 
be  condemned  as  an  institution  dangerous  to  the  wel- 
fare of  society.  But  the  school  cannot  hope  to  escape 
this  condemnation  by  merely  letting  well  enough 
alone;  it  must  give  positive  attention  to  the  moral 
growth  of  its  pupils. 

For  there  is  nothing  intrinsically  moral  in  the  school. 
I  mean  by  this  that  the  mere  fact  that  a  child  enters 
a  school  building  and  there  meets  scores  of  other  chil- 
dren and  with  them  is  compelled,  one  way  or  another, 
to  acquire  certain  information,  is  no  guarantee  that  he 
is  thereby  to  grow  in  moral  ability.  That  ability  is 
bound  to  be  affected  in  some  way,  but  not  necessarily 
in  the  direction  of  growth  and  improvement.  It  may 
be  so  affected  as  to  make  him  morally  weaker  than  if  he 
had  remained  on  the  street;  or  again,  it  may  be  so  af- 
fected as  to  make  him  tremendously  stronger  morally 
than  if  he  had  remained  on  the  street.  The  child  can- 
not go  to  school,  nor  anywhere  else,  and  remain  un- 
affected morally;  his  environment  trains  him  positively 
either  toward  morality  or  toward  immorality. 

60 


MORAL  TRAINING 

Were  it  possible  for  the  school  to  deal  with  the  child 
intellectually  only  and  have  no  effect  whatever  upon 
his  moral  nature,  whether  for  better  or  for  worse,  then 
the  teaching  of  morals  might  be  considered  an  ex- 
traneous thing,  and  the  advocates  of  its  intrusion 
would  be  on  the  defensive.  But  the  case  is  not  so. 
Select  any  incident  at  random  in  the  pupil's  school 
day.  Here,  for  instance,  is  a  boy  who  has  just  solved 
a  problem  in  arithmetic.  He  carries  his  paper  to  his 
teacher,  who  looks  over  his  work  and  disposes  of  it. 
In  all  of  this  simple  procedure  there  is  a  definite  moral 
tone  which  has  its  inevitable,  though  not  always  star- 
tling or  recognized,  effect  upon  the  boy.  The  spirit  in 
which  he  attacked  the  problem,  the  manner  in  which 
he  walked  to  the  teacher's  desk,  what  the  teacher  said 
and  how  he  said  it,  the  boy's  reaction  toward  the 
teacher's  attitude — all  these  have  their  moral  value, 
all  have  their  sure  effect,  be  it  ever  so  little  in  quan- 
tity, upon  the  boy's  moral  progress  or  retrogress. 
Thus  every  exercise  and  event  in  the  school  touches 
the  moral  spirit  of  the  pupil — the  school  cannot  escape 
its  responsibility. 

We  are  not  to  suppose  that  the  child  himself  is  ana- 
lytic concerning  his  own  gain  or  loss  in  moral  culture. 
He,  like  the  adult,  ordinarily  "senses"  things,  not  syl- 
logizes them.  For  example,  he  does  not  often  say :  "  I 
did  so  and  so;  the  teacher  treated  it  thus;  that  was  un- 

61 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

just;  therefore,  I  am  unjustly  treated;  therefore,  I 
will  .  .  .  etc."  Rather  has  he  an  indefinite  rankling 
sensation  that  he  is  not  being  fairly  treated;  but  his 
consequent  conduct  is  no  less  positive  because  it  is 
based  on  a  general  feeling  and  not  on  a  specific  intel- 
lectual inference.  This  preambles  the  thought  that 
the  very  organization  of  the  school  cannot  fail  to  ex- 
ercise an  indirect  though  nevertheless  powerful  effect 
upon  the  moral  training  of  its  pupils.  It  is  this  influ- 
ence of  the  organic  structure  of  the  school  system  upon 
the  problem  of  moral  culture  that  constitutes  the 
theme  of  this  chapter. 

America  unfurls  the  flag  of  democracy  on  which  are 
emblazoned  " liberty,  fraternity,  and  justice,"  and  we 
all  cheer  lustily.  But  as  she  takes  up  the  educational 
banners  upon  which  are  inscribed  the  golden  word 
"  opportunity, "  and  proceeds  to  distribute  them  to  a 
meager  tenth  of  her  children,  and  then,  in  stepmother- 
ly fashion,  gives  to  the  others  the  simple  privilege  of 
shouting  while- her  favorites  march  by,  can  she  reason- 
ably demand  from  these  an  enthusiastic  devotion  either 
to  democracy  or  to  the  abstractions  of  justice  and 
right?  Even  though  he  says  little  about  it  at  the  time, 
does  not  the  fourteen-year-old  boy,  suddenly  cast  up- 
on the  maelstrom  of  life,  untrained  to  pull  an  oar  or 
reef  a  sail,  still  sense  the  fact  that  America  had  appren- 
ticed him  to  a  horticulturist  and  not  to  a  navigator? 

62 


MORAL  TRAINING 

Retardation  is  the  euphemistic  technical  term,  re- 
cently discovered,  applied  to  the  patent  fact  that  our 
children  do  not  get  along  well  at  school.  There  is, 
though,  a  certain  felicity  in  the  selection  of  the  word, 
for  it  implies  that  the  mishap  of  the  pupil  is  something 
for  which  he  is  not  responsible — retardation  must 
mean  that  the  child  is  retarded  by  something  or  some- 
body. In  spite  of  much  current  talk  on  the  subject, 
it  is  a  question  as  to  whether  we  quite  know  what  it 
is  all  about.  Shall  we  measure  a  child  against  an  aver- 
age standard,  against  an  abnormally  high  standard, 
or  against  an  exceptionally  low  standard?  Why  not 
simply  measure  himself  against  himself?  And  how  can 
we  measure  him  against  himself  if  we  give  him  another 
person's  work  to  do  instead  of  his  own? 

Having  set  up  a  school  machine  that  is  not  con- 
structed to  do  the  work  required  of  it,  shall  we  stand 
off  and  wonder  why  the  products  of  the  machine  are 
mutilated  and  defective?  Instead  of  rebuilding  the 
machine,  we  continue  to  patch  it  here  and  there,  hope- 
ful that  by  some  chance  stroke  we  may  improve  the 
product.  Then  when  the  tinkering  is  unsuccessful, 
recourse  is  had  to  shifting  the  blame  to  the  engineers. 
There  is  surely  no  teacher  who  would  pretend  to  have 
fully  mastered  the  teaching  art,  nor  any  principal  who 
would  claim  to  manage  his  school  faultlessly;  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  each  employee  in  the  school  system  is 

63 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

ready  to  acknowledge  his  own  shortcomings  in  his 
position;  and  yet  he  would  seem  justified  in  protesting 
against  being  charged  with  defective  results  which 
are  presumptively  due  to  false  organization.  Retarda- 
tion is  not  an  indictment  against  the  teacher  and  his 
teaching  method  so  much  as  it  is  against  the  organic 
structure  of  the  school. 

It  may  seem  that  this  reference  to  retardation  would 
more  properly  have  been  made  while  we  were  consid- 
ering the  curriculum,  but  it  belongs  right  here.  Moral 
nurture  requires  all  the  favoring  conditions  which  it 
can  command.  Moral  integrity  is  so  tender  a  plant 
that  we  should  not  take  any  chances  in  trying  to  raise 
it  in  poor  soil.  Pupils,  set  to  doing  the  wrong  tasks, 
are  making  the  struggle  to  grow  morally,  in  arid 
soil:  Undoubtedly  the  plant  is  not  conscious  of  its 
meager  growth  nor  does  it  philosophize  about  the 
quality  of  the  soil  from  which  it  springs — but  the 
gardener  is  nevertheless  responsible.  The  child  has  no 
very  clear  notion  of  why  he  stumbles  in  his  moral 
progress,  or  even  perhaps  of  the  fact  that  he  is  stum- 
bling. But  whether  the  retarded  child  realizes  it  or 
not,  his  very  retardation  is  a  force  making  against  his 
moral  growth — and  the  school  is  responsible.  Re- 
organize the  school ;  measure  the  child  against  a  stand- 
ard appropriate  to  himself;  eliminate  the  strain  on 
his  moral  development  which  results  when,  owing 

64 


MORAL  TRAINING 

him  one  kind  of  schooling,  we  thrust  another  upon 
him. 

We  may  look  at  this  subject  of  moral  training  with 
advantage  if  we  reconsider  it  in  its  relation  to  the 
curriculum,  and  once  more  recall  the  contest  between 
the  formalist  and  the  culturist  for  the  possession  of 
the  child.  To  give  the  child  naught  but  the  disciplin- 
ary, the  formal,  the  utilitarian,  subjects  of  study,  and 
to  compel  him  to  toil  throughout  his  school  day  and 
school  year  in  their  atmosphere,  is  to  exclude  all  the 
incentives  to  moral  growth  which  inhere  in  the  culture 
group  of  studies. 

It  is  true  that  there  is  a  certain  knowledge  of  the 
right  to  be  acquired  through  the  study  of  the  truths 
of  mathematics;  there  is  a  certain  feeling  for  the  right 
to  be  experienced  through  the  ideals  of  mathematical 
accuracy  and  precision;  there  is  a  certain  development 
of  the  will  power  resulting  from  the  struggle  with  the 
formal  processes  and  the  rigorous  reasoning  involved 
in  mathematical  calculations.  And  yet  to  depend 
wholly  upon  arithmetic  and  the  other  formal  studies 
for  the  culture  of  the  knowledge,  the  feeling,  and  the 
will,  which  function  in  every  moral  act,  is  unneces- 
sarily to  limit  opportunity  and  to  employ  a  method 
needlessly  harsh  and  forbidding.  There  is  very  much 
in  the  realm  of  literature,  of  science,  of  history,  of  art, 
of  handicraft,  that  teaches  effectively  the  knowledge 

65 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

of  and  feeling  for  moral  issues,  and  we  are  demanding 
the  impossible  of  the  child  when  we  exclude  him  from 
this  realm  of  profit  and  yet  hold  him  to  a  high-quality 
virtue. 

On  the  other  hand,  to  give  the  average  child  a  cur- 
riculum overloaded  with  content  studies — studies 
which  he  should  pursue  not  as  a  preparation  for  further 
formal  study  in  higher  institutions  but  solely  for  inter- 
est and  inspiration — is  to  set  his  mind  in  such  a  whirl 
that  the  moral  virtues  are  in  danger  of  being  sub- 
merged and  lost.  In  their  laudable  eagerness  to 
relieve  the  child  from  the  severities  of  the  utilitarian 
programme,  the  culturists  have  weakened  him  in  all 
three  departments  which  make  for  moral  strength. 

In  the  first  place,  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong 
comes  either  through  the  acceptance  of  dogmatic 
teaching  or  through  careful  thinking  on  a  few  well- 
considered  facts,  never  from  slipshod  thinking  about 
a  vast  multitude  of  facts.  Was  it  Josh  Billings  who 
told  us  that  "  it  is  better  not  to  know  so  many  things 
than  to  know  so  many  things  what  ain't  so"?  Who- 
ever the  author,  it  is  the  expression  of  a  saner  peda- 
gogy than  many  of  the  professional  pedagogues  preach 
or  practice.  The  digestive  capacity  of  the  average 
child  is  as  limited  for  mental  food  as  for  bodily  food; 
when  his  mind  is  stored  with  innumerable  scraps  of 
knowledge  and  then  these  are  tamped  down  day  after 

66 


MORAL  TRAINING 

day  so  as  to  stuff  in  still  more,  he  is  sure  to  be  harbor- 
ing, many,  many  things  "what  ain't  so."  And  the 
pity  of  it  is  that  either  he  charges  the  school  with  bad 
faith  when  his  condition  is  finally  revealed  to  him,  or 
else  he  never  learns  his  plight  and  goes  through  life 
thinking  hazily  and  lazily.  If  a  boy  cannot  think  ac- 
curately in  terms  of  arithmetic,  or  of  geography,  or 
of  civics,  how  are  we  to  suppose  him  capable  of  think- 
ing accurately  in  terms  of  moral  precepts  and  moral 
definitions? 

In  the  second  place,  the  pressure  of  the  culture 
studies  on  the  time  schedule  reduces  the  total  time 
given  to  the  formal  group;  and  the  inclusion  of  an 
immense  number  of  totally  unnecessary  topics  in  the 
various  formal  studies,  materially  reduces  the  time 
available  for  each  topic.  The  result  is  that  the  teacher, 
under  average  conditions,  cannot  teach  thoroughly, 
with  the  further  result  that  the  ideal  of  thoroughness 
is  shattered.  Pupils  present  indifferent  work;  the 
teacher  knows  that  it  should  not  be  accepted,  that  a 
higher  standard  should  be  set  before  the  pupil  and 
compliance  therewith  imperatively  demanded.  But 
to  maintain  this  standard  is  a  physical  and  mental 
impossibility,  and  so  the  child  accepts  as  his  standard 
the  carelessness  which  circumstance  compels  the 
teacher  to  accept  from  him.  Now  carelessness  is  dis- 
tinctively an  immoral  ideal.  How  can  we  expect  a 

67 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

child  whose  ideal  has  been  thus  untrained  or  wrongly 
trained  in  regard  to  intellectual  tasks,  to  carry  over 
to  the  moral  realm  careful  ideals  of  duty  and  truth? 
In  the  third  place,  the  spirit  of  the  cultural  studies 
has  exerted  a  decided  influence  upon  the  teaching  of 
the  formal  group.  The  keynote  of  the  new  education 
is  interest,  and  even  the  teaching  of  the  multiplica- 
tion table  may  be  made,  in  a  way,  interesting,  intrin- 
sically so  in  its  presentation  and  artificially  so  in  its 
drill.  But  there  is  an  acquisition  of  formal  knowledge 
and  power  which  can  come  only  through  intense  con- 
centration of  attention.  To  make  a  subject  interest- 
ing through  the  petty  devices  of  teaching  method,  is 
to  make  it  fruitless  in  will  training.  And  so  the  in- 
fluence of  the  interest-rousing  spirit  upon  those  essen- 
tials of  the  curriculum  which  are  to  be  acquired  only 
by  brute  force,  as  it  were,  has  not  been  altogether  a 
profitable  one.  Moral  development,  while  dependent 
upon  knowledge  and  feeling,  is  predominantly  a  mat- 
ter of  will.  The  education  of  the  will,  by  very  defini- 
tion, means  fundamentally  training  in  doing  what  we 
do  not  especially  desire  to  do.  It  follows  then  that 
will  training  cannot  be  made  "interesting."  This  is 
true  when  we  mean  by  interest  any  direct  stimulus 
which  compels  attention;  it  is  of  course  not  true  if  we 
extend  it  to  include  that  higher  interest  which  func- 
tions indirectly  through  ideals. 

68 


MORAL  TRAINING 

Consider  a  single  crude  illustration.  A  boy  is  left 
alone  in  a  room  with  a  luscious  red  apple  in  sight  which 
belongs  to  another  boy.  He  knows  that  to  appro- 
priate that  apple  to  his  own  use  would  be  a  wrong 
act — an  act  which  he  has  learned  to  call  stealing.  His 
general  sentiment,  his  ideal,  is  honesty;  his  higher  self 
prompts  him  to  overrule  his  appetite  and  not  take  the 
apple.  If  he  succeeds  in  so  controlling  his  will  that  it 
is  obedient  to  his  ideal  and  not  to  his  appetite,  he  has 
won  a  moral  victory  and  has  made  a  distinct  advance 
in  the  subjection  and  training  of  his  will.  If  we  call 
this  ideal  an  interest,  as  probably  we  should,  then  we 
must  admit  that  interest  does  factor  favorably.  But 
suppose,  as  the  boy  is  about  to  steal  the  apple,  he 
suddenly  recollects  that  he  has  an  orange  of  his  own 
in  his  lunch-box,  and  also  that  he  really  likes  oranges 
better  than  apples.  This  direct  interest,  this  demand 
upon  his  involuntary  attention,  though  it  does  result 
in  his  not  stealing,  has  done  little  or  nothing  in 
training  him  in  the  virtue  of  honesty.  Or  again,  sup- 
pose that  while  he  is  debating  the  question  with  him- 
self and  is  about  to  take  the  apple,  his  teacher 
suddenly  appears  upon  the  scene  and  imposes  her 
will  upon  his.  Although  the  act  of  stealing  has  been 
averted,  it  is  clear  that  there  has  been  no  advance  in 
the  training  of  the  boy's  will.  In  other  words,  the 
essence  of  moral  power  is  the  ability  to  do,  of  one's 

69 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

own  volition,  those  things  which  we  desire  not  to  do; 
it  is  the  victory  of  the  imperative  ought  over  the  se- 
ductive please. 

When  the  teacher  attempts  to  give  the  pupil  the 
elements  of  the  formal  studies  through  an  interest 
which  aims  to  inveigle  him  or  trick  him  into  their  ac- 
quisition, he  is  depriving  the  child  of  the  very  train- 
ing in  will  development  which  is  his  due.  Of  course 
the  drillmaster  is  not  to  construe  this  into  a  license  to 
do  naught  but  drill  his  class  in  intellectual  perform- 
ances; there  is  no  moral  virtue  in  drill,  per  se.  It  is 
only  when  the  pupil  submits  himself  to  unattractive 
drill  through  the  operation  of  some  ideal  which  he  rec- 
ognizes for  himself,  that  he  is  gaining  in  will  power. 

I  recall  the  case  of  a  girl  sent  to  me  by  her  teacher 
with  a  "commendation  card"  for  an  excellent  geog- 
raphy recitation.  As  I  indorsed  the  card  with  my  sig- 
nature, I  said,  "So  you  like  geography,  do  you?" 
Her  frank  reply  came  with  explosive  promptness, 
"  No,  I  hate  it. "  It  was  evident  that  she  had  made  an 
important  gain  in  the  power  of  self-application  to  a 
distasteful  task,  and  it  was  no  less  evident  that  the 
teacher  was  alive  to  her  responsibilities  for  the  train- 
ing of  her  girls  toward  moral  conquest. 

Now,  the  essence  of  an  ideal  is  that  it  shall  in  some 
way  represent  an  ultimate  and  transcendent  "good." 
It  must  have  a  recognizable  "  value. "  The  pupil  must, 

70 


MORAL  TRAINING 

in  one  way  or  another,  be  brought  to  sense  his  duty, 
which  is  but  his  epitome  of  ideals.  He  learns  that  it 
is  his  duty  to  do  his  school  work — including  all  the 
disagreeable  phases  of  it — because,  broadly  speaking, 
it  is  right  for  him  to  become  educated  and  wrong  for 
him  to  grow  up  in  ignorance.  But  if  we  recognize  the 
fact  that  the  so-called  education  which  we  put  upon 
him  is  not  the  education  which  will  make  him  most 
effective,  either  individually  or  socially,  how  can  we, 
with  any  conscience,  lead  him  to  a  faith  in  this  mis- 
directed education  as  an  ideal?  A  curriculum  which 
gives  pupils  so  much  to  do  that  they  can  do  none  of 
it  thoroughly,  which  leads  them  to  believe  that  their 
full  duty  consists  in  passive  submission  to  the  active 
determination  of  the  teacher  to  interest — we  had  al- 
most said  amuse — them,  which  seems  to  teach  them 
that  it  is  easily  possible  to  get  something  for  nothing, 
is  a  curriculum  immoral  certainly  in  its  effects,  if  not 
in  and  of  its  very  self. 

The  central  thought  of  the  kindergarten,  as  I 
understand  it,  is  to  provide  the  child,  early  in  his 
life,  with  practical  ideals  which  shall  become  effective 
motives  in  directing  his  activities  and  shall  gradually 
transform  his  aimless  play  into  purposeful  work. 
It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  this  spirit  has 
been  misinterpreted  by  many  of  the  enthusiastic 
disciples  of  Froebel.  They  seem  to  have  read  the 

71 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

word  play  in  enlarged  capitals  and  to  have  entirely 
overlooked  the  great  moral  implications  of  the  kinder- 
garten idea.  Hence  the  plea  that  the  spirit  of  the 
kindergarten  be  extended  through  the  elementary- 
school  grades  has  all  too  frequently  resulted  in  attempts 
on  the  part  of  misguided  teachers  to  convert  into  play 
those  activities  of  the  school  which  must  ever  involve 
work,  hard  work,  work  in  the  performance  of  which 
inheres  the  essence  of  moral  stamina  and  true  virtue. 
Professor  Wendell,  in  his  essay  on  "Our  National 
Superstition,"  scores  the  weakening  effect  of  these 
misdirected  ideas  in  the  so-styled  "new  education." 
"The  whole  new  system  of  education,  from  a  child's 
first  school  to  a  man's  last  degree,  is  based  on  this 
principle,  which  we  may  call  the  principle  of  the  kin- 
dergarten— not  literally,  of  course,  but  as  a  matter  of 
general  temper.  You  must  try  to  find  out  just  what 
everybody  likes  best,  and  then  help  him  to  do  it 
just  as  kindly  as  you  can."  1  He  traces  the  effect  of 
this  principle  in  these  words:  "boys  fitted  for  college 
at  schools  where  the  new  education  has  supplanted  the 
old,  seem  to  me,  almost  year  by  year,  when  they  get 
to  college,  flabbier  and  flabbier  in  mind,"  and  he  il- 
lustrates with  the  story  of  the  Harvard  sophomore 
whom  he  advised  to  "take  in  hand  some  hard  and 

1  Barrett  Wendell:  "The  Privileged  Classes,"  Scribnera,  1908, 
p.  157. 

72 


MORAL  TRAINING 

solid  subject,  and  therewith  to  plow  out  the  traces 
of  the  kindergarten." 

Probably  Professor  Wendell  would  not  wish  his 
essay  construed  as  an  attack  upon  the  kinder- 
garten per  se,  nor  do  we  need  to  make  any  such 
attack  in  order  to  convince  ourselves  that  the  power 
of  relentless  concentration  is  not  one  of  the  virtues  de- 
veloped by  the  latter-day  pedagogy.  And  if  the  effect 
upon  the  chosen  one  per  cent  of  children  who  go  to 
college  is  so  marked,  can  we  wonder  that  the  ninety 
per  cent  in  our  elementary  schools  succumb  to  the 
enervating  spirit  of  dolce  far  nientef  We  may  well 
question  our  right  to  demand  of  our  pupils  that  they 
shall  exhibit  in  the  moral  sphere  a  will  power  which 
we  neglect  to  develop  in  their  intellectual  training. 

How  can  we  expect  the  child  who  has  never  learned 
to  face  forbidding  and  distasteful  intellectual  tasks  and 
conquer  them  through  sheer  force,  to  meet  the  moral 
crises  of  his  life  with  infallible  strength  of  will? 

There  are  many  other  causes,  some  of  them  pain- 
fully patent,  of  the  present  unsatisfactory  relation  of 
our  public  schools  to  moral  education,  but  I  purposely 
refrain  even  from  referring  to  them.  I  wish  rather 
to  support  the  single  thesis  that  the  curriculum  it- 
self exercises  an  influence  upon  the  moral  develop- 
ment of  the  pupils  to  whom  it  is  applied,  an  influence 
which  may  neither  be  lightly  disregarded  nor  readily 
6  73 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

measured.  The  substance  and  spirit  of  the  curric- 
ulum should  therefore  be  such  as  to  promote  and  not 
to  impede  this  development.  Our  American  curric- 
ulum, so  closely  related  to  our  illogical  school  organ- 
ization, is  on  trial  charged  with  increasing  the  diffi- 
culties attending  the  problem  of  moral  training  when 
it  should  be  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  positive 
contributions  toward  its  solution. 


PART  TWO 
PROBLEMS  IN  METHOD  AND  MANAGEMENT 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  distinction  has  elsewhere  been  drawn l  be- 
tween the  general  and  the  specific  relations  which  the 
school  principal  and  the  class  teacher  sustain  toward 
the  state.  The  problems  discussed  in  the  preceding 
chapters  are  such  as  ordinarily  concern  the  subordi- 
nate in  a  school  system  only  as  he  is  interested  in  ful- 
filling his  general  obligation  to  society.  His  specific 
contract  does  not  call  upon  him  to  settle  general  pol- 
icies or  to  solve  the  broad  problems  of  school  admin- 
istration. Nevertheless,  as  an  honest  student  and  a 
thoughtful  observer  he  is  bound  to  have  some  opin- 
ions regarding  these  policies  and  these  problems;  and 
it  is  in  recognition  of  the  general  duty  which  the  state 
imposes  upon  him  as  one  of  its  professional  members 
that  he  offers  the  results  of  his  study  and  his  obser- 
vation, hopeful  that  they  may  be  received  at  their 
face  value  and  render  to  society  a  service  proportioned 
to  their  merit.  But  as  attention  is  transferred  from 
these  broader  problems  to  the  details  of  school  and 

1  "The  Management  of  a  City  School,"  p.  9. 

77 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

class  management,  the  specific  obligations  of  princi- 
pals and  teachers  come  into  view. 

So  long  as  the  whole  subject  of  educational  theory 
and  practice  is  in  a  state  of  unstable  equilibrium,  each 
school  must  be  considered  an  experiment  station,  and 
each  executive  head — whether  of  a  class,  a  school,  or  a 
system — must  regard  himself  as  a  research  student  in 
the  pedagogical  laboratory.  The  principal  particu- 
larly has  a  unique  opportunity  to  work  out  tentative 
solutions  to  definite  problems  in  both  management 
and  methods.  He  occupies  a  position  midway 
between  the  enthusiastic  exponent  of  educational 
reforms  and  the  practical  teacher  upon  whom  falls 
the  burden  of  attempting  to  realize  those  reforms. 
His  consequent  function  is  that  of  intermediary  be- 
tween theory  and  application,  and  his  philosophy  will 
be  a  practical  idealism.  Keeping  his  head  in  the 
radiant  but  shifting  clouds,  he  yet  grounds  his  feet 
squarely  upon  the  prosaic  and  solid  earth.  He 
recognizes  the  value  of  ideals  and  appreciates  the 
sincerity  of  those  educational  writers  whose  ex- 
pression is  largely  in  terms  of  the  ideal;  but  he  also 
sympathizes  with  the  class  teacher  whose  devotion 
to  the  philosophic  phase  of  her  work  is  imperatively 
diverted  by  the  demands  of  a  very  present  and  actual 
condition  of  fact.  Through  receptive  sympathy  the 
most  ardent  thought  of  the  progressive  educationalist 

78 


INTRODUCTION 

may  be  properly  tempered  by  the  cool  judgment  of 
a  practical  principal  and  safely  passed  on  to  the 
teacher  for  her  to  apply  to  the  factual  situation. 

Those  who  are  directly  engaged  in  school  and  class 
management  are  in  search  not  so  much  of  the  state- 
ments of  new  theories,  though  the  motivating  value 
of  these  is  duly  acknowledged,  as  of  reports  of  the 
applications  of  such  theories  in  actual  current  prac- 
tice. From  which  it  follows  that,  in  proportion  as 
the  school  executive  has  opportunity  to  experiment, 
it  is  his  duty  to  report  upon  the  results  of  his  experi- 
ments to  his  fellow  workmen.  It  is  with  a  sense  of 
this  duty,  which  overrides  my  own  recognition  of  the 
shortcomings  of  the  following  pages,  that  I  send  them 
forth. 

My  lines  have  fallen  in  pleasant  places,  and  the 
large  elementary  school  which  I  have  had  the  good 
fortune  to  administer  for  several  years  has  afforded 
an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  study  of  definite 
problems  as  well  as  encouragement  to  attempt  their 
solution.  But  however  willing  the  spirit  may  be  to 
devote  itself  to  work  of  this  character,  the  time  left 
for  such  work  after  the  hours  demanded  by  the  daily 
routine  have  been  subtracted  from  the  school  day,  is 
all  too  brief.  Of  the  specific  subjects  treated  herein, 
those  of  chapters  four  to  seven  may  more  properly 
be  considered  as  problems  of  methods  and  those  of 

79 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

the  succeeding  chapters  as  problems  of  management. 
I  have  aimed  to  include  nothing  that  has  been  defi- 
nitely worked  out  in  the  same  way  by  other  school  men 
and  already  described  in  published  form.  If  it  should 
prove  that  I  have  been  anticipated  in  any  respect  by 
matter  already  published  which  has  escaped  my  no- 
tice, I  here  record  my  assurance  .that  it  is  in  spite  of 
a  conscientious  effort  to  acquaint  myself  with  the 
bibliography  of  the  various  subjects. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  apologize  to  practical  teach- 
ers for  entering  quite  fully  into  working  details.  It  is 
the  interchange  of  views  in  just  such  detail  that  is 
most  desired  by  craftsmen  already  grounded  in  the 
philosophy  of  education  and  the  essentials  of  method. 
At  this  point,  too,  I  may,  once  for  all,  express  my 
apology — if  apology  be  needed — for  the  prevalence 
of  the  first  person  in  the  language  of  many  of  the 
following  pages.  Most  of  the  sentences  could  be 
recast  so  as  to  give  them  the  air  of  impersonality,  but 
the  results  of  experience  seem  to  be  most  effectively 
presented  in  the  direct  speech  of  the  deponent,  and 
any  formal  attempt  to  avoid  the  possible  criticism  of 
egoism  would  seem  an  unnecessary  affectation. 


IV 

ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

COMPOSITION l 

"COMPOSITION,"  as  it  is  understood  in  its  limited 
school  sense,  is  the  art  of  composing  thoughts,  that 
is,  of  putting  thoughts  together  properly.  The  ex- 
pression of  a  detached,  random  thought  or  collection 
of  thoughts  may  no  more  be  dignified  by  the  term 
composition  than  the  careless  daub  of  the  brush  is 
deemed  a  composition  in  the  pictorial  arts.  Hence 
the  essence  of  composition  teaching  is  to  train  the 
pupil  to  arrange  his  thoughts.  He  needs  to  learn 
this  art  for  both  its  personal  and  social  value.  It 
is  the  latter  phase  which  perhaps  comes  most  prom- 
inently to  mind  when  we  consider  composition  work 
in  the  schools,  namely,  the  necessity  for  proper 
thought  conveyance  so  that  the  individual  may  be 

1  Particularly  sixth-,  seventh-,  and  eighth-  year  grades.  For 
primary  composition,  see,  among  others:  Percival  Chubb,  "The 
Teaching  of  English,"  The  Macmillan  Co.,  1907,  pp.  106-117, 
and  Joseph  S.  Taylor,  "Composition  in  the  Elementary  School," 
A.  S.  Barnes  and  Co.,  1906. 

81 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

an  effective  and  agreeable  member  of  his  social 
group. 

Equally  important,  however,  is  the  development  of 
the  habit  of  clear  and  orderly  thinking,  even  when 
there  follows  no  immediate  formal  expression  of  the 
results  of  this  thinking.  This  is  necessary  to  any 
substantial  progress  in  the  personal  cultural  life  of 
the  individual.  By  way  of  illustration  we  have  only 
to  note  how  unthinking  is  the  reading  of  even  in- 
telligent people.  For  many,  the  novel  is  the  only 
literary  form  with  which  they  are  at  all  intimate. 
The  value  of  the  novel  is  certainly  not  to  be  min- 
imized— its  power  to  stimulate,  to  soothe,  to  interest, 
even  to  instruct — but  as  a  means  of  intellectual  dis- 
cipline how  far  inferior  it  is  to  such  a  form  of  literary 
composition  as  the  essay. 

Few  people  read  in  order  to  think.  Quite  frequently 
their  reading  results  in  a  substantial  inhibition  of  their 
own  impulse  to  thinking,  with  danger  of  an  eventual 
atrophy  of  the  power  to  think  in  any  true  sense  of  the 
word.  Compared  to  the  number  whose  only  concep- 
tion of  reading  is  the  absorption  of  the  plot  and  in- 
cident of  the  novel,  few  indeed  are  they  who  are 
willing  to  read  one  page,  say  of  Emerson's  Essays, 
and  think  five  pages,  and  extremely  few  are  those 
who  have  deliberately  cultivated  such  a  habit.  The 
development  of  the  habit  of  self-reliant  thinking, 

82 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

then,  is  an  aim  of  school  training  justified  by  con- 
sideration not  only  of  the  child's  responsibility  as  a 
social  unit,  but  also  of  his  personal  culture. 

Thought  arrangement  is  impossible,  moreover, 
without  the  presence  of  a  store  of  thoughts.  Of 
course  no  person  can  be  absolutely  thoughtless,  and 
yet  there  exists  an  undeniable  necessity,  in  any 
method  of  training,  for  deliberately  providing  a  sup- 
ply of  thoughts. 

Composition  teaching  consequently  involves  definite 
cultivation  of  (1)  the  pupil's  power  and  habit  of 
searching  for  and  seizing  upon  the  raw  materials  of 
the  thinking  process,  (2)  the  ability  to  work  over 
these  raw  materials  so  that  they  may  be  properly 
classified  and  correlated  in  his  mental  storehouse, 
and  (3)  the  ability  intelligently  to  convey  the  results 
of  his  thinking  to  others  by  means  of  verbal  ex- 
pression. For  convenient  reference,  we  may  des- 
ignate these  three  stages:  (1)  Acquisition,  (2)  Organ- 
ization, (3)  Expression. 

(1)  Acquisition  is  directed  toward  materials  which 
will  work  up  into  various  forms  of  literary  composi- 
tion and  is  concurrent  with  all  the  instructional  ex- 
ercises of  the  school.  Every  subject  of  the  curriculum 
forces  upon  the  pupils'  attention  materials  which  are 
stowed  away  in  consciousness,  where  they  remain 
subject  to  a  more  or  less  ready  recall.  The  skillful 

83 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

teacher  recognizes  that  in  teaching  each  subject  he  is 
not  only  working  toward  the  specific  ends  by  virtue 
of  which  that  subject  has  a  place  in  the  curriculum, 
but  he  is  also  accumulating  for  the  pupil  subject- 
matter  which  the  pupil  is  to  reorganize  for  the  dis- 
tinctive purpose  of  exercising  his  powers  of  ex- 
pression. That  is,  he  is  teaching  each  subject  not 
only  directly  for  itself,  but  also  indirectly  for  results 
in  composition.  Hence  he  will  bear  in  mind  the 
various  uses  to  which  the  acquired  facts  may  be  put 
in  the  work  in  composition,  and  the  pupils  themselves 
in  their  progress  through  the  grades  will  gradually 
learn  to  classify  the  chief  kinds  of  production. 

The  forms  which  verbal  composition  may  take  are 
those  which  constitute  the  time-honored  categories 
of  rhetoric,  namely,  narrative,  description,  expo- 
sition, and  argument.  Professor  Gardiner1  groups 
these  into  the  literature  of  thought  (the  last  two) 
and  the  literature  of  feeling,  and  includes,  too,  in  the 
former  group  a  type  which  is  scarcely  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  elementary  school,  criticism. 

All  acquisition  may  lead  toward  any  one  of  the  four 
kinds  of  composition;  and  the  pupil,  unless  he  is  de- 
liberately acquiring  facts  for  a  particular  kind  of  com- 
position, will  absorb  ideas  regardless  of  the  exact  form 

1  J.  H.  Gardiner:  "The  Forms  of  Prose  Literature,"  Scribners, 
1900. 

84 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

of  their  eventual  use.  However,  certain  school  studies 
and  exercises  seem  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  devel- 
opment of  one  rhetorical  form  than  another  and  hence 
to  be  most  prolific  in  supplying  this  particular  need. 
This  field  of  the  subject  has  been  well  worked  over l 
and  is  not  further  referred  to  here. 

(2)  Organization  makes  such  a  selective  arrange- 
ment of  the  raw  materials  already  acquired  as  will 
dispose  them  economically  in  the  mental  storeroom 
and  prepare  them  for  appropriate  expression.2  "An 
agglomeration  of  material  has  no  literary  value,  any 
more  than  a  stone-heap  has  an  architectural  value. 
If  the  author  has  done  nothing  but  amass  he  is  unin- 
teresting. "  3  Under  the  head  of  "  organization  "  should 
come  the  study  of  the  model,  considered  as  a  compo- 

1  Chubb,  op.  cit.,  p.  178,  et  seq.     Gardiner,  op.  cit.,  pp.  25-181. 
Scott-Denney:  "Elementary  English  Composition,"  Allyn  and 
Bacon,  1906,  p.  88,  et  seq.     Scott-Southworth :  "  Lessons  in  Eng- 
lish," Book  II,  Sanborn  and  Co.,  1906,  p.  287,  et  seq.  Emerson- 
Bender:  "Modern  English,"  Book  II,  Macmillan,  1906,   p.  341, 
et  seq.     On    argumentation,   see  Frances  M.  Perry:   "An  Intro- 
ductory Course  in  Argumentation,"  American  Book  Co.,  1906. 
William  Trufant  Foster:  "  Argumentation  and  Debating,"  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin,  1908. 

2  "To  compose  is  to  organize;  you  cannot  get  a  well-organized 
product  from  a  disorganized  mind.     This  we  would  keep  as  the 
root  idea  of  composition  in  the  Grammar  Grades." 

— Chubb,  op.  cit.,  p.  174. 

3  Charles  F.  Johnson:  "Elements  of  Literary  Criticism,"  Har- 
pers, 1898,  p.  16. 

85 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

sition  whole,  and  models  for  this  purpose  should  ex- 
emplify not  alone  beauty  of  language  but  excellence 
of  logical  arrangement.1  In  addition  to  the  analytic 
study  of  the  model,  formal  synthetic  exercises  in  or- 
ganization should  be  given,  wherein  the  pupils  have 
set  before  them  a  series  of  detached  sentences,  or  less- 
er elements,  which  they  are  to  rearrange  into  proper 
sequence.2  The  teacher  may  most  readily  get  mate- 
rial for  such  exercises  by  disarranging  the  sentences  in 
a  model.  It  will  add  interest  to  the  work  if  the  pupils 
know  the  source  of  the  material  and  are  permitted  to 
compare  the  results  of  their  efforts  at  reorganization 
with  the  original. 

The  discussion  incident  to  the  study  of  the  model 
and  the  reorganization  of  material  will  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  the  inductive  development  of  the  funda- 
mental rules  for  rhetorical  unity.  The  rules  thus  de- 
rived may  in  turn  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  application 

1  "    ...  there  must  be  impression  from  good  models,  what 
the  child  hears  and  reads.     The  depth  of  the  impression  depends 
largely  upon  the  intensity  of  the  interest  that  accompanies  the 
experience,  and  the  frequency  of  repetition  under  the  influence 
of  alert,  active  interest." 

— Robbins-Rowe:  "Essential  Studies  in  English,"  Book  I, 
Row,  Peterson  and  Co.,  1907,  p.  5. 

2  "  One  way  of  showing  what  a  paragraph  is,  is  to  show  what 
it  is  not." 

— Adams  Sherman  Hill :  "  The  Foundations  of  Rhetoric,"  Har- 
pers, 1899,  p.  313,  et  aeq. 

86 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

in  organization  exercises.  Chief  among  these  rules 
are:  "put  but  one  main  assertion  and  appropriate 
modifiers  in  a  sentence,  treat  one  subordinate  topic  in 
a  paragraph,  refer,  when  possible,  in  the  closing  sen- 
tence of  a  paragraph  to  the  subject  introduced  in  the 
opening,  arrange  paragraphs  according  to  a  well-con- 
sidered plan,  review  the  main  positions  in  the  close, 
give  digressions  an  evident  relation  to  the  main  prop- 
osition. .  .  .  "x 

One  other  form  of  exercise  is  indispensable  in  devel- 
oping the  organizing  faculty:  the  making  of  outlines 
for  compositions  on  given  subjects,  unaccompanied  by 
either  the  acquisition  process  for  the  particular  sub- 
jects considered  or  their  expression  in  amplified  form.2 
The  paragraph  heading  will  be  the  first  unit  of  sub- 
division, followed  by  subtopical  notes.3  Care  must 

1  Johnson,  op.  cit.,  p.  23. 

2  "  Making  outlines  "  is  discussed  (p.  132)  in  Carpenter,  Baker, 
and  Scott,  "  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Elementary  and  the 
Secondary  School,"  Longmans,  1903.     This  also  contains  an  ex- 
tensive bibliography  in  English  work. 

3  "  A  paragraph  is  to  a  sentence  what  a  sentence  is  to  a  word 
.  .  .  the    principles    which    apply  to  the  composition  of  para- 
graphs are  the  same  that  apply  to  the  composition  of  sentences." 

-p.  119. 

"Words  and  sentences  are  subjects  of  revision;  paragraphs 
and  whole  compositions  are  subjects  of  prevision." 

—  Barrett  Wendell:  "English  Composition,"  Scribners,  1897, 
p.  117. 

87 


OF    THE 

(   UNIVERSITY 

•&LIFO 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  subjects,1  and  they 
should  be  more  truly  subjects  than  the  more  limited 
titles  which  are  often  prescribed  for  finished  composi- 
tions.2 For  instance,  the  subject  of  a  class  exercise 
may  be  "  Vacation  Experiences"  and  the  titles  of  the 
several  compositions  quite  dissimilar,  as:  "A  Snake 
and  a  Stick,"  "An  August  Afternoon,"  "When  the 
Golden-Rod  Blossoms,"  etc. 

(3)  Expression  is  the  final  stage.  This  of  course 
does  not  mean  that,  in  the  development  of  the  pupil, 
all  expression  is  postponed  until  he  has  mastered  the 
arts  of  acquisition  and  organization,  but  that  in  the 
construction  of  any  single  composition,  expression  is 
the  goal,  with  the  other  two  exercises  merely  prelim- 
inaries in  reaching  it.  In  this  stage  the  whole  question 

1  A  list  of  325  subjects  for  themes  is  given  in  Brainerd  Kel- 
logg:   "A  Text-Book   on   Rhetoric,"   Maynard,    Merrill,    1906. 
One   thousand    graded   composition   subjects   are   provided   in 
Albert  W.  Emerson:   "Composition  and  Criticism,"   Bardeen, 
1893,  p.  46,  et  seq.     Many  subjects  are  suggested  and  discussed 
in  Gilbert-Harris:  "Guide  Books  to  English,"  Book  II,  Silver, 
Burdett,  1908,  and  in  A.  Howry  Espenshade:  "The  Essentials 
of  Composition  and  Rhetoric,"  D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.,  1907,  pp. 
175,  368. 

2  "Give  ideas,  not  subjects.     The  former  inspire,  the  latter 
deaden.     Do  not  trouble  about  the  subject;  a  paper  can  be 
named  after  it  is  written." 

—Rosa  V.  Winterburn:   "Methods  in  Teaching,"  Macmillan, 
1907,  p.  81. 

88 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

of  style l  comes  to  the  front,  and  the  detailed  arrange- 
ment of  words  becomes  the  subject  of  careful  and  crit- 
ical study. 

All  composition  is  verbal,  but  its  expression  may  be 
either  oral  or  written.  From  the  pedagogic  viewpoint 
I  would  make  a  further  distinction  by  classifying  all 
school  composition  exercises  in  expression  as  formal 
or  informal.  The  formal  exercise  plans  to  produce  a 
complete  composition  of  some  one  of  the  four  rhetor- 
ical forms.  The  informal  exercise  seeks  to  strengthen 
expression  in  points  of  detail  and  has  only  incidental 
by-products,  consisting  of  some  unit  less  than  a  com- 
position whole. 

Under  the  informal  phase  there  should  be  no  rigid 
distinction  between  oral  and  written  exercises. 
Teacher  and  pupils  should  not  hesitate  to  go  from 
one  to  the  other  in  the  most  informal  manner.  Dur- 
ing an  oral  composition,  for  instance,  the  teacher  may 
say:  "John,  you  expressed  that  extremely  well;  see 
if  you  can  write  it  as  well  as  you  talked."  John 
dashes  it  off  quite  informally  while  the  rest  of  the 

1  Extended  discussion  of  the  elements  of  style — clearness, 
force,  ease,  elegance,  etc. — will  be  found  in  any  standard  text 
in  rhetoric.  Among  these  are :  Barrett  Wendell,  op.  cit.,  Adams 
Sherman  Hill,  op.  cit.,  and  G.  R.  Carpenter:  "Elements  of 
Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,"  Macmillan,  1906,  pp.  220- 
242.  On  correct  use  of  words,  see  Rossiter  Johnson :  "  The  Alpha- 
bet of  Rhetoric,"  Appleton,  1903. 
7  89 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

class  proceed  with  their  oral  work.  Conversely,  dur- 
ing an  informal  written  exercise.  Lender  this  head 
may  be  grouped  a  great  variety  of  exercises,  some  of 
which  are  here  enumerated. 

(1)  Drills  on  correct  grammatical  forms,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  correct  use  of  prepositions,  of  personal 
and  relative  pronouns,  of  irregular  verbs,  the  proper 
location   of   explanatory   modifiers,   correct  syntax, 
substitution  of  language  for  the  pupils'  "  slanguage." 

(2)  Preparation  for  the  formal  composition  involv- 
ing  search   for   and  discussion  of   subject  matter, 
arrangement   of    topical    outlines,    reports   of   indi- 
viduals or  committees  assigned  to  research  work. 

(3)  Discussion  and  criticism  of  pupils'  formal  com- 
positions.    Samples  of  the  best  and  worst — the  latter, 
of  course,  incognito — may  be  read  or  written  on  the 
blackboard. 

(4)  Reports  on  home  reading,  current  events,  per- 
sonal adventures,  topics  studied  in  geography,  history, 
and  the  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 

(5)  A  series  of  pupils  each  talking  to  a  single  topical 
title  of  an  outlined  composition  whole. 

(6)  Very  brief — five-minute  or  so — written  compo- 
sitions, with  no  emphasis  upon  mechanical  features, 
dealing  with  whole  subjects  or  single  paragraphs  or 
topics,  or  reproducing  stanzas  of  poetry  or  paragraphs 
of  prose  from  memory  or  more  immediate  dictation. 

90 


ENGLISH   IN  THE   UPPER  GRADES 

(7)  Exercises  in  condensation,  such  as  advertise- 
ments, "lost  and  found"  items,  the  reporting  of  events 
and  incidents  in  telegrams  of  a  limited  number  of 
words. 

(8)  Exercises  in  expansion,  such  as  invention  of  de- 
tails of  the  story  of  "Jack  and  Jill,"  "Old  Mother 
Hubbard,"   "The   boy   was   Benjie;   the   bear  was 
bulgy;  the  bulge  was  Benjie/'  etc. 

(9)  Speed  exercises,  in  which  pupils  endeavor  to 
report  in  writing  as  much  as  possible  of  a  vivid  narra- 
tive within  a  certain  time  limit.    This  is  allied  to  the 
work  of  the  newspaper  reporter  who  strives,  in  the 
parlance  of  his  trade,  to  "get  a  scoop." 

Formal  expression  may  be  classified,  somewhat 
arbitrarily,  thus: 

Declamation 
Debate 


ORAL 


WRITTEN    {  Letter 
I  Theme 

The  declamation  is  the  oral  essay  presented  without 
thought  of  immediate  rejoinder,1  whereas  the  debate 
deliberately  sets  one  declamation  against  another. 
The  letter  is  the  written  essay  directed  to  a  particular 
audience  with  corresponding  modification  in  form 

'See  Edwin  DuBois  Shurter:  "The  Rhetoric   of  Oratory/'" 
Macmillan,  1909. 

91 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

and  substance,  whereas  the  theme  is  addressed  to  a 
general  and  impersonal  audience.  Both  kinds  of 
formal  expression  require  systematic  cultivation,  but 
the  pedagogy  of  each  differs.  One  large  aim  is  com- 
mon to  both:  the  development  of  facility  in  thought 
expression,  or  more  specifically,  the  cultivation  of 
proper  habits  as  to  logical  arrangement,  rhetorical 
style,  and  grammatical  correctness. 

Another  important  aim,  that  of  the  development  of 
facility  in  mechanical  arrangement  and  accuracy,  is 
present  only  in  the  written  expression.  Hence,  in 
general,  it  may  be  laid  down  that  in  the  criticism  of 
written  compositions  only  those  matters  of  detail 
should  be  given  attention  which  are  unreachable  in 
the  oral  composition.  Detailed  correction,  in  a 
written  exercise,  of  errors  in  rhetoric  and  grammar, 
or  even  their  indication,  is  inadvisable  for  many 
reasons,  but  chiefly  because  it  tends  to  repression 
rather  than  to  expression.1  The  pupil  to  whom  is 
returned  his  two-page  effort  in  composition,  com- 
pletely reticulated  with  colored  cabalistic  advertise- 
ment of  his  incompetency,  is  distinctly  discouraged, 
and  his  next  attempt  will  be  cautiously  abbreviated 

1  "Fluency  must  be  sought  for  before  correctness;  or,  in  other 
words,  the  teacher  must  have  freedom  and  spontaneity  in  view." 
— B.  A.  Hinsdale,  "Teaching  the  Language  Arts,"  Appleton,  1896, 
p.  113. 

92 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER   GRADES 

to  a  single  page.  The  pupil  is  in  need  of  every 
possible  encouragement  to  express  himself  freely  and 
fearlessly.  If  deprived  of  ample  opportunity  to  prac- 
tice expression  without  fear  of  consequences,  he  will 
never  develop  any  skill  in  composition.  His  errors 
in  rhetoric  and  grammar  should  therefore  be  pointed 
out  to  him  orally  when  they  occur  in  his  written  ex- 
ercises, or  referred  to  in  written  criticism  in  general 
terms  only.  The  habit  of  making  these  errors  must 
be  deliberately  and  systematically  overcome  through 
the  class  exercises  of  informal  character  and  his  own 
formal  oral  compositions. 

The  ability  to  write  is  certainly  not  more  than  half 
of  what  is  sought  in  composition  study,  so  that  we 
are  safe  in  limiting  written  exercises  at  most  to  half 
of  the  time  allowed  for  the  entire  subject  of  compo- 
sition. Again,  not  more  than  half  of  the  time  allotted 
to  written  composition  should  be  devoted  to  formal 
exercises.1  That  is  to  say,  one-fourth  of  the  entire 
composition  time  should  be  the  maximum  limit  set 

1  "In  ordinary  life  oral  language  predominates  over  the  writ- 
ten. So  it  should  be  in  the  language  period.  The  oral  expres- 
sion should  precede  and  prepare  the  way  for  written  work  .  .  . 
writing  involves  all  the  difficulties  of  oral  expression,  with  the 
added  burden  of  spelling,  punctuation,  and  manipulation  of  pen, 
ink,  and  paper." 

—Sarah  L.  Arnold:  "  Waymarks  for  Teachers,"  Silver,  Bur- 
dett,  1906,  p.  123. 

93 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

for  the  writing  of  formal  compositions.  This  results, 
under  the  usual  programme,  in  one  formal  written 
composition  about  every  two  weeks.  These  exercises 
are  both  tests  and  drills.  As  tests  they  indicate  the 
measure  of  success  of  the  teaching  of  expression  dur- 
ing the  other  three-fourths  of  the  time,  and  conse- 
quently will  afford  a  basis  for  subsequent  teaching, 
showing  what  faults  in  rhetoric  and  grammar  that 
teaching  should  especially  aim  to  correct.  As  drills, 
they  afford  opportunity  to  train  the  pupil  in  the 
mechanics  of  written  expression. 

It  follows,  then,  that  the  problem  in  devising  a 
scheme  for  the  criticism  of  formal  written  composi- 
tions is  how  best  to  develop  correct  mechanics.  The 
mechanical  points  introduced  by  the  written  compo- 
sition are  four:  arrangement,  spelling,  capitalization, 
and  punctuation.  None  of  these  has  a  place  in  oral 
expression;  all  four  are  unavoidable  incidents  to  the 
formal  written  exercise.  Arrangement  (not  to  be 
confused  with  thought  organization)  applies  to  the 
proper  adjustment  of  the  written  matter  to  the  space 
at  hand.  Proper  margins  must  be  allowed  at  left 
and  right  of  the  page.  In  a  theme,  the  title  must  be 
distinctly  set  apart  from  the  subject  matter;  in  a 
letter,  the  distinctive  elements  of  address,  subscrip- 
tion, etc.,  must  occupy  the  conventional  positions. 
The  turning  of  the  sheet  from  its  obverse  to  its  re- 

94 


ENGLISH   IN  THE   UPPER   GRADES 

verse  page  must  be  in  one  direction  or  in  another 
according  to  whether  the  collected  sheets  are  to  be 
bound  at  the  top  or  at  the  side.  Spelling,  as  it  must 
be  in  a  language  so  devoid  of  phonic  consistency  as  is 
ours,  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  correct  visualization  and  of 
effective  training  of  the  hand  so  that  the  writing  of 
words  correctly  becomes  for  the  most  part  submerged 
below  the  realm  of  conscious  attention  into  that  of 
automatic  habit.  Capitalization  is  but  a  phase  of 
spelling  with  the  distinction  that  it  is  particularly 
subject  to  the  application  of  formal  rules.  Punctua- 
tion is  to  written  expression  what  emphasis,  pause, 
and  gesture  are  to  oral  expression,  and  like  these  must 
be  reduced  to  a  subordinate  position  in  the  mind 
while  it  is  engaged  in  conscious  expression  of  thought. 
With  these  considerations  in  mind  the  following 
scheme  for  the  review  of  formal  written  compositions 
is  offered: 

1.  All  the  pupils  of  the  class  are  to  write  one  such 
composition  every  fortnight. 

2.  The  teacher  is  to  read  critically  one  half  of  these 
compositions  each  time.    Thus  each  pupil  will  have 
his  exercise  reviewed  once  in  four  weeks. 

3.  The  teacher  will  annotate  each  composition  re- 
viewed as  follows : 

a.  Indicate  all  errors  in  mechanical  arrangement 
by  the  simplest  marking  of  the  paper  or  a  statement 

95 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

thereon;  e.  g.,  if  the  margin  is  not  properly  provided, 
draw  a  line  showing  the  correct  bounding  of  the 
margin.  If  the  title  is  not  sufficiently  indented,  in- 
dicate its  correct  position  by  vertical  boundary  lines. 

b.  Indicate  each  error  in  spelling  by  two  crosses, 
one  at  the  misspelled  word  and  one  in  the  margin  on 
the  same  line. 

c.  Indicate  each  error  in  capitalization  by  a  cross 
at  the  word  and  by  a  sign  in  the  margin  on  the  same 
line,  thus:  C5,  meaning  that  capitalization  rule  5  has 
been  violated. 

d.  Indicate  each  error  in  punctuation  by  a  cross  at 
the  place  of  error  and  a  sign  in  the  margin,  thus: 
P12,   meaning  that  punctuation  rule  12  has  been 
violated. 

6.  Do  not  indicate  or  correct  errors  in  grammar  or 
rhetoric;  but  at  the  top  of  the  sheet  write  a  brief 
critical  statement  of  the  composition  as  a  whole. 

4.  No  first-draft  compositions  are  to  be  written 
at  home. 

5.  Every  pupil  who  receives  his  composition  re- 
viewed as  above  described  is  to  rewrite  it,  preferably 
as  a  home  exercise,  correcting  in  the  second  draft 
all  errors  indicated  on  the  first.    In  addition  he  will 
write  correctly  each  misspelled  word  five  times  and 
every  violated  rule  once,  together  with  the  incorrect 
sentence  correctly  written  to  show  the  application  of 

96 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

the  rule.  This  written  work  is  to  be  submitted  to  the 
teacher  within  a  certain  time  limit  at  the  option  of 
the  teacher.  The  half  of  the  class  whose  compositions 
are  not  reviewed  make  no  second  draft. 

Corollaries  to  and  explanations  of  these  directions 
are: 

1.  It  is  understood  that  the  limitation  of  one  per 
fortnight  applies  only  to  the  formal  written  compo- 
sition.   There  will  be  frequent  exercises  of  an  in- 
formal character  as  already  indicated. 

2.  The  reading  of  half  of  the  total  number  is 
merely   a   minimum   requirement.     Naturally,    if   a 
teacher  will  read  more,  the  returns  will  be  commen- 
surate with  the  added  labor. 

3.  No  errors  are  actually  corrected;  they  are  only 
indicated. 

a.  Penmanship  may  be  included  under  this  head 
to  the  extent  of  noting  general  criticisms,  such  as 
"  Penmanship  is  careless,"  "  Attend  to  slant  in  pen- 
manship," "  Avoid  flourishes  in  penmanship,"  etc. 
Too  much  attention  must  not  be  paid,  however,  to 
the  penmanship  of  the  first  draft,  for  the  mind  of 
the  pupil  must  be  concentrated  upon  verbal  expres- 
sion. More  may  be  demanded  in  the  second  draft, 
for  he  is  then  relieved  from  the  stress  of  composition. 

(6)  The  pupil  is  to  discover  for  himself,  by  the  use 
of  the  dictionary,  the  correct  spelling. 

97 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

(c)  and  (d)  The  pupil  is  to  discover  what  constitutes 
his  error  by  applying  the  rule  cited  in  capitalization 
and  punctuation. 

(e)  Errors  in  rhetoric  and  grammar  are  reachable 
in  oral  and  in  informal  written  exercises;  hence  their 
correction  should  be  left  in  the  main  to  those  exercises. 
The  pupil  has  sufficient  difficulty  in  strengthening  his 
habits  of  correct  formal  mechanics  without  introduc- 
ing these  other  matters  of  thought-expression  into  the 
sole  exercise  which  involves  the  mechanics.  The  lan- 
guage of  our  most  honored  professional  authors  is  open 
to  the  criticism  of  competent  experts.  Art  perfection 
is  wholly  a  matter  of  degree,  as  shown,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  comparative  ability  of  the  primary 
pupil  and  his  teacher.  There  is  no  absolute  in  art. 
With  the  mechanics  it  is  different.  The  modes  of 
arrangement,  spelling,  and  for  the  most  part  punc- 
tuation, are  arbitrarily  fixed.  The  professional  nov- 
elist and  the  grammar-school  pupil  are  at  a  level 
when  it  comes  to  spelling;  they  must  both  reduce  the 
drudgery  of  spelling  to  a  habit,  and  when  they  have 
fixed  the  habit  they  will  both  find  themselves  spelling 
the  same  words  in  the  same  way,  however  wide  may 
be  the  chasm  between  their  respective  abilities  as  lit- 
erary artists.  The  pupil's  shortcomings  in  style  may 
be  safely  left  unremarked  when  he  is  under  the  strain 
of  literary  expression  plus  attention  to  mechanical 

98 


ENGLISH   IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

details.  The  teacher  will  by  no  means  overlook  these 
shortcomings,  but  will  carefully  note  them  and  upon 
them  build  up  his  subsequent  language  teaching.  He 
should,  however,  pass  a  definite  general  judgment  upon 
each  pupil's  effort  considered  apart  from  its  mechan- 
ical merits.  This  judgment  will  find  expression  in 
brief  statements  at  the  head  of  the  sheet  such  as:  An 
interesting  story;  Very  entertaining;  Consult  me  about 
paragraph  three;  Where  is  the  verb  in  paragraph  two?; 
You  have  improved  much  in  construction;  A  very 
clever  invention. 

(4)  There  is  much  to  be  said  against  a  pupil's  writ- 
ing a  composition  at  home,  as  indeed  there  is  against 
his  preparing  any  written  home  work.    At  any  rate, 
by  having  the  original  draft  written  in  school  the 
teacher  has  a  guarantee  of  the  authenticity  of  the 
pupil's  work  and  thus  insures  to  all  pupils  the  oppor- 
tunity for  performing  the  school  exercise  under  equally 
favorable  environment. 

(5)  There  is  less  danger  in  letting  pupils  write  second 
drafts  at  home,  for  this  work  is  almost  entirely  me- 
chanical and  involves  no  "  composition. "    The  rules 
laid  down  above  as  to  the  rewriting  of  misspelled 
words,  etc.,  are  quite  arbitrary  and  may  well  be  mod- 
ified to  suit  varying  conditions.  Correct  spelling  must 
become  a  matter  of  habit.     In  misspelling  a  word  the 
pupil's  habit  has  followed  in  the  wrong  groove  and  in 

99 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

consequence  has  deepened  that  groove.  To  insure 
its  following  the  proper  path  the  next  time  there  is 
occasion  to  write  the  same  word,  it  is  not  sufficient 
that  he  become  aware  that  he  made  the  error,  but  it 
is  further  necessary  that  he  deliberately  send  his  men- 
tal and  muscular  rolling  stock — to  change  the  meta- 
phor slightly — over  the  proper  track  a  number  of 
times.  What  this  number  shall  be,  depends  upon  cir- 
cumstances and  particularly  upon  the  personal  co- 
efficient of  the  individual  pupil.  If  he  is  ordinarily  a 
"good"  speller,  five  is  perhaps  more  than  is  necessary, 
though  it  can  certainly  do  him  no  harm;  if  he  is  a 
"wretched"  speller,  perhaps  ten  would  be  none  too 
many.  The  slip  in  capitalization  or  punctuation  is 
also  a  habit  gone  wrong.  Something  here  must  be 
done  to  focus  the  attention  not  upon  the  error  but 
upon  the  error  corrected.  This  may  be  done  by  writ- 
ing the  violated  rule,  or  by  writing  correctly  the  word 
miscapitalized  or  the  sentence  in  which  the  punctua- 
tion error  occurred,  or  by  a  combination  of  these  two 
such  as  has  been  suggested  above.  To  carry  out  this 
scheme  of  criticism,  a  set  of  rules  for  capitalization 
and  punctuation  must  be  agreed  upon.  Such  will 
be  found  in  every  standard  text  in  grammar.  The 
rules  should,  however,  be  carefully  graded,  and  all 
violations  of  rules  not  yet  reached  by  pupils  of  any 
grade  should  be  entirely  disregarded. 

100 


ENGLISH   IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

A  suggestive  graded  set  of  such  rules  follows: 

PUNCTUATION 
GRADE     RULE  No.  RULE 

4A  Ix l       A  PERIOD  is  placed  at  the  end  of 

every  statement. 
2  A  PERIOD   is   placed   after   every 

abbreviation. 
3x         A  HYPHEN  is  used  when  a  word 

is  broken  at  the  end  of  a  line. 
4x         A  QUESTION  MARK  is  placed  at  the 

end  of  every  question. 

5  QUOTATION  MARKS  are  used  to  in- 
close words  written  or  spoken  by 
some  other  person  exactly  as  given. 

6  An  APOSTROPHE   is  used  to  show 
the  omission  of  a  letter  or  of  letters. 

4B  7x         An  EXCLAMATION  MARK  is  placed 

after    a    word    expressing    strong 
feeling. 

8  An    APOSTROPHE    is    used    in    a 

noun  to  show  that  it  expresses  own- 
ership. 

5A  9  The  name  of  a  person  addressed  is 

set  off  by  COMMAS. 

1  The  x  indicates  that  this  rule  is  not  stated  in  its  final  form. 
It  reappears  (in  6A)  in  new  and  final  form  when  the  pupil  has 
learned  the  meaning  of  declarative  and  imperative  sentences, 
at  which  time  the  form  learned  in  4 A  is  dropped. 

101 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

GRADE    RULE  No.  RULE 

5B  10  A  quotation  is  set  off  from  the  rest 

of  the  sentence  by  a  COMMA  or 
COMMAS,  unless  it  is  formally  in- 
troduced. 

11  A   HYPHEN  is   used   to   join    the 
parts  of  compound  words  and  ex- 
pressions. 

6A       1  (To  re-    A  PERIOD  is  placed  at  the  end  of 
place  Ix)      every   declarative   and   every   im- 
perative sentence. 

3  (To  re-    A  HYPHEN  is  used  to  show  that 
place  3x)       one  or  more  syllables  of  a  word  will 
be  found  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next  line  below. 

12  Two  or  more  words  in  the  same 
grammatical  relation  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  COMMAS,  un- 
less all  the  conjunctions  are  ex- 
pressed. 

13  When  words  connected  by  a  con- 
junction follow  in  successive  pairs, 
a  COMMA  is  used  after  each  pair. 

6B       4  (To  re-    An  INTERROGATION  MARK  is  placed 
place  4x)      at  the  end  of   every  interrogative 
sentence,  phrase,  or  word. 
102 


ENGLISH   IN  THE   UPPER   GRADES 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 
GRADE    RULE  No.  RULE 

6B       7  (To  re-    An  EXCLAMATION  MARK  is  placed 
place  7x)      after  an  exclamatory  word,  phrase, 
or  sentence. 

14  An  adverbial  phrase  preceding  the 
verb  and  its  subject,  is  usually  fol- 
lowed by  a  COMMA. 

15  An   adverbial   phrase   coming   be- 
tween the  subject  and  the  verb,  or 
between  the  parts  of  the  predicate, 
is  set  off  by  COMMAS. 

16  A  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  in  ap- 
position,  unless  it  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  word  it  modifies,  is 
set  off  by  COMMAS. 

7A  17          PARENTHESES  are  used  to  inclose 

a  remark  that  might  be  omitted 
without  destroying  the  sense  of  the 
sentence. 

18  Certain  adverbs  (again,  first,  finally, 
thus,    and    the    like),    particularly 
when  they  begin  a  sentence,  are 
usually  set  off  by  COMMAS. 

19  An  adverbial  clause  preceding  its 
principal  clause,  is  followed  by  a 
COMMA. 

103 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 
GRADE    RULE  No.  RULE 

7A  20          An    adverbial    clause    introduced 

within  a  clause  is  set  off  by  COM- 
MAS. 

21  The  omission  of  a  predicate  verb  is 
indicated  by  a  COMMA. 

22  A  quotation  or  an  enumeration  of 
particulars,    when   formally   intro- 
duced, is  preceded  by  a  COLON. 

7B  23          A  very  long  subject  is  usually  sep- 

arated  from   the   predicate   by   a 
COMMA. 

24  When  the  same  object  follows  two 
or  more  prepositions,  a  COMMA  is 
placed  after  each  preposition. 

25  When  a  quotation  or  an  illustration 
is   introduced  by  as  or  namely,  a 
SEMICOLON  is    placed    before    the 
introductory  word,  and  a  COMMA 
after  it. 

26  A  DASH  is  used  when  a  sentence 
breaks  off  abruptly. 

8A  27          A  nonrestrictive  relative  clause  is 

separated   by  a  COMMA  from  the 
noun  or  pronoun  whose  meaning  it 
modifies. 
104 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER   GRADES 

PUNCTUATION— Continued 

GRADE    RULE  No.  RULE 

8A  28  The  members  of  a  compound  sen- 

tence when  they  are  not  themselves 
subdivided  by  commas,  and  are  re- 
lated in  meaning,  are  separated  by 
COMMAS. 

29  The  members  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence when  they  are  themselves  sub- 
divided by  commas,  are  separated 
by  SEMICOLONS. 

30  A  DASH  is  used  when   there   is  a 
sudden  change  in  the  thought. 

8B  31          The  members  of  a  compound  sen- 

tence, when  they  are  themselves 
subdivided  by  semicolons,  are  sep- 
arated by  COLONS. 

32  A  DASH  is  sometimes  used  be- 
fore words  which  are  used  to  ex- 
plain the  meaning  of  preceding 
words. 

CAPITALIZATION 

GRADE    RULE  No.  RULE 

3B  1          Begin  with  capitals  the  names  of 

the  days  of  the  week  and  the  months 

of  the  year. 

4A  2          Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word 

of  every  sentence. 
8  105 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

CAPITALIZATION— Continued 
GRADE    RULE  No.  RULE 

4A  3          Begin  with  a  capital  the  first  word 

of  every  line  of  poetry. 

4x  Begin  with  capitals  all  names  of  per- 
sons and  places. 

5          Write  the  words  7  and  0  as  capitals. 

6x  Begin  with  a  capital  every  quota- 
tion. 

4B       4y  (To  re-  Begin  with  capitals  all  names  of  per- 
place  4x)      sons  and  places  and  words  formed 
from  them. 

7  Begin  with  a  capital  every  name  or 
title  of  the  Deity. 

8x  Begin  with  capitals  the  important 
words  in  the  subject  of  any  com- 
position. 

9  Begin  with  a  capital  every  title  of 
honor  or  respect. 

5B       8y  (To  re-  Begin  with  capitals  the  important 
place  8x)      words  in  the  title  of  a  book,  or  in 
the  subject  of  any  other  composi- 
tion. 

6A       6  (To  re-    Begin  with  a  capital  every  direct 
place  6x)      quotation  when  it  is  a  complete  sen- 
tence. 

106 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

CAPITALIZATION— Continued 
GRADE    RULE  No.  RULE 

6A       8  (To  re-    Begin  with  capitals  the  important 
place  8y)       words  in  the  title  of  a. book,  in  the 
subject  of  any  other  composition, 
or  in  an  epoch  or  event  of  history. 

10  Begin  with  capitals  the  names  of 
points  of  the  compass  when  they  de- 
note sections  of  a  country. 

11  Begin  with  a  capital  the  name  of 
every  religious  denomination. 

6B       4  (To  re-    Begin  with  a  capital  every  proper 
place  4y)      noun  and  every  proper  adjective. 

8B  12          Begin  with  a  capital  every  person- 

ified common  noun. 

In  the  formal  oral  composition  the  pupil  is  freed 
from  consideration  of  mechanical  points  and  hence 
may  be  more  closely  held  to  subject  matter  and 
expression.  Declamations  are  of  various  sorts,  chiefly 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  their  delivery. 
Among  them  are  the  oration,  the  speech,  the  lec- 
ture, the  address,  and  the  sermon.  The  pupil  may 
be  encouraged  to  regard  his  efforts  as  looking  toward 
any  of  these.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  is  in 
the  elementary  stage.  His  early  declaiming  will 
quite  as  closely  resemble  an  oration  as  will  his  theme 

107 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

the  finished  product  of  the  mature  essayist.  He 
should  make  the  same  preliminary  preparation  in 
acquisition  and  organization  as  he  does  for  the 
theme.  He  should  learn  to  use  the  ordinary  adjuncts 
in  acquisition,  such  as  notes,  reference-books,  statis- 
tical tables,  reports,  etc.,  and  in  organization,  such 
as  an  outline  of  topics  and  subtopics.  His  progress 
in  oral  expression  will  be  measured  on  the  one  hand 
by  the  increased  ease  and  freedom  from  awkwardness 
with  which  he  refers  to  these,  and  on  the  other  hand 
by  the  degree  to  which  he  can  free  himself  from  their 
use. 

In  the  elementary  school  the  debate  should  be  used 
sparingly  and  probably  only  in  the  higher  grades. 
Its  chief  value,  in  addition  to  the  interest  which  it 
may  be  made  to  arouse,  is  in  promoting  a  breadth  of 
view  and  a  spirit  of  toleration.  It  is  better  that  a 
pupil  should  not  be  interrupted  in  the  course  of  his 
formal  oral  composition.  The  class  and  the  teacher 
should  be  alert  to  note  faulty  organization  and  errors 
in  expression.  These  may  then,  after  the  pupil  has 
concluded,  be  made  the  subject  of  frank  and  imper- 
sonal discussion. 

In  addition  to  the  two  criteria  which  we  have 
already  seen  must  be  applied  in  the  classification  of 
compositions,  namely,  those  of  rhetoric  and  of  form 
of  expression;  the  pedagogical  factor  necessitates  yet 

108 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

another  classification  coordinate  with  these.  The 
pupil  is  led  through  various  stages  of  dependence 
upon  models.  In  one  sense  he  never  fully  gets  away 
from  a  model,  but  there  is  an  ascending  scale 
through  which  his  originality  functions.  The  teacher, 
therefore,  is  forced  to  recognize  several  degrees  of 
originality  and  classifies  the  formal  composition  ac- 
cordingly. Lowest  in  the  scale  is  the  copy,  either 
through  eye  or  through  ear,  of  the  model,  at  which 
stage  the  pupil's  originality  is  at  a  minimum,  practi- 
cally at  zero.  Next  is  reproduction,  in  which  the 
pupil  reproduces  the  model  in  thought  but  not  in 
exact  language.  If  he  is  deliberately  abbreviating 
the  model,  he  is  producing  an  abstract;  if  deliber- 
ately amplifying  it,  an  expansion  or  elaboration;  if 
neither,  a  paraphrase.  Imitation  is  the  next  higher 
stage,  wherein  style  and  general  elements  of  form  are 
reproduced  without  using  the  same  thought  sub- 
stance. Recall  is  a  form  differing  from  reproduction 
in  that  the  material  used  is  supplied  by  memory  and 
must  be  newly  organized,  and  from  imitation  in  that 
no  model  is  employed.  Research  is  the  deliberate 
setting  out  for  material,  purposeful  and  specific 
acquisition,  and  differs  from  recall  in  that  the  latter 
is  a  search  not  in  the  present  but  in  the  past. 
Finally,  when  no  model  is  used,  and  the  raw  material 
is  the  subject  of  neither  recall  nor  research,  but  of 

109 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


original  creation,  then  is  reached  the  highest  degree 
of  originality,  Invention. 

In  conclusion,  the  following  classification  summar- 
izes the  criteria  already  noted  as  applying  to  the 
formal  composition  for  purposes  of  elementary -school 
pedagogy 


As  to 


Literature 


Rhet  . 


j  Prose 
1  Poetry 


Expression  * 


rOral 


Written 


Cop; 


Originality  « 


Oration 
Speech 

i  Declamation  ^  Lecture 
.  Address 
Debate 
Letter 


k  Sermon 


|  Theme 

by  eye 
by  ear 


/Social 
1  Business 


(Abstract 

,     ,  .  Paraphrase 

Reproduction    ^  Expjfnsion  (=   Elabora- 

L  tion) 


Imitation 
Recall 
Research 
Invention 


110 


ENGLISH  IN  THE   UPPER  GRADES 

GRAMMAR 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  study  of  formal 
grammar  should  find  any  place  in  the  curriculum  of 
the  elementary  school,  but  there  are  few  school  sys- 
tems which  have  yet  had  the  hardihood  to  banish  it. 
Whatever  may  be  the  psychology  of  the  matter,  it 
is  certain  that  the  analysis  of  sentences  and  the  pars- 
ing of  words  present  considerable  difficulty  to  the 
average  pupil,  and  any  device  which  makes  for  the 
simplification  of  the  subject  is  helpful. 

The  pupil  must  be  led  to  see  that  analysis  in 
grammar  is  merely  a  matter  of  descriptive  classi- 
fication, and  that  in  this  it  differs  but  little  from 
our  ordinary  daily  classification  of  common  things. 
Before  us  stands  a  person;  we  observe  him,  analyze 
him,  and  make  note  of  the  results  of  our  analysis. 
We  do  not  always  formally  state  this  result,  but  if 
we  did,  it  would  be  succinctly  something  like  this: 
person,  boy,  red  hair,  freckles,  dimpled  chin,  long 
arms,  bow  legs,  etc.,  etc.  When,  instead  of  a  person, 
there  stands  before  us  a  word,  we  have  to  go  through 
the  same  process,  and  state  the  result  as  before, 
thus:  word,  noun,  collective,  common  gender,  ob- 
jective case,  etc.  Now  there  may  be  no  inaccuracies 
in  the  statement  of  the  analysis  either  of  the  boy 
or  of  the  word,  but  the  pupil  must  learn  that  as 

111 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

grammar  is  a  science,  there  has  long  since  been  es- 
tablished a  conventional  form  of  analysis. 

When  the  government  agent  issues  a  passport,  he 
has  to  enter  upon  his  record  a  description  of  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  issued.  He  might  describe  that 
person  in  a  three-page  essay,  but  that  is  not  required 
of  him.  His  government  has  already  prescribed  the 
form  of  his  record,  and  it  is  left  to  him  merely  to 
enter  the  specific  results  of  his  analysis  in  their  ap- 
propriate places.  For  instance,  his  record  form  may 
call  for  analysis  of  the  person  in  respect  to  Sex,  Age, 
Height,  Weight,  Complexion,  Color  of  Eyes,  etc.,  and 
his  only  duty  is  to  make  the  entry  in  the  blank  space 
opposite  each  item.  Moreover,  if  he  were  making  an 
oral  analysis  of  the  person  to,  let  us  say,  some  other 
official  who  understood  the  form  prescribed,  he  would 
not  describe  him  by  any  such  circumlocution  as: 
Well,  he  is  a  boy;  and  he  says  he  is  twelve  years 
old  but  he  looks  to  be  fifteen;  he's  tall  for  his 
age,  I  should  say  five  feet  eight  inches,  and  so  on. 
Instead,  he  would  give  a  mere  summary  of  results 
in  this  fashion:  Male,  twelve,  five-eight,  blond,  and 
so  forth. 

In  the  same  way  certain  conventional  forms  have 
been  established  for  the  analysis  of  sentences  and 
words,  and  the  pupil  must  be  made  to  recognize  this, 
so  that  his  parsing  of  the  word  man,  for  example,  is 

112 


ENGLISH  IN  THE   UPPER   GRADES 

not  the  discursive  guesswork  which  we  so  frequently 
hear:  Man  is  a,  is  a  noun,  it's  in  the  third  person, 
masculine  gender,  it's  a  common  noun.  .  .  .  What 
should  be  required  is  a  crisp  catalogue  of  character- 
istics, thus:  Man,  noun,  common,  third,  singular, 
masculine,  nominative,  subject  of  the  verb  threw. 
The  pupil  may  understand  that  the  order  in  which 
these  characteristics  is  to  be  given  is  largely  arbitrary, 
but  it  is  no  less  binding  upon  him  to  conform  with  this 
conventional  requirement. 

Hence  when  the  pupil  begins  his  work  in  formal 
analysis  he  should  be  provided  with  the  conventional 
form  which  is  to  be  used  throughout  all  his  subsequent 
study  of  grammar.  He  may  have  this  form  before 
him,  just  as  the  passport  writer  or  any  other  cata- 
loguer has  his  list  of  required  items  before  him.  After 
a  while  we  expect  the  pupil  to  reach  the  point  where 
he  is  not  dependent  upon  the  form,  that  is,  where  he 
has  learned  the  various  items  and  the  order  in  which 
they  stand.  This  form  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  pedagogic  crutches,  of  which  we  have  to  use 
so  many,  and  the  general  rule  as  to  the  use  of  crutches 
applies  here.  The  crutch  is  for  the  lame  only;  just 
as  soon  as  the  lameness  can  be  made  to  disappear,  take 
away  the  crutch.  Not  to  provide  a  crutch  to  the  lame 
is  cruelty ;  to  keep  a  sound  person  on  crutches  is  absurd. 
Accurately  to  measure  each  pupil's  need  of  such 

113 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

a  help  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  a  superior 
teacher. 

This  form  may  be  provided  the  pupil  as  a  printed 
sheet,  or  he  may  write  it  for  himself  on  dictation  at 
the  beginning  of  the  term,  or,  as  a  chart,  it  may  be 
kept  ready  for  display  before  the  class.  The  form 
here  given  has  proved  satisfactory,  and  requires  but 
little  explanation.  In  following  it,  the  pupil  learns 
that  he  must  first  state  whether  the  word  or  group  of 
words  which  he  is  considering  is  a  sentence,  a  phrase, 
or  a  word  (grammatically  speaking).  He  then,  from 
each  line  in  what  follows,  selects  the  particular  designa- 
tion which  describes  the  word  or  words  which  he  is 
analyzing.  The  words  in  parenthesis  are  key  words 
and  are  not  to  be  given  in  the  analysis.  Designations 
marked  |  f  rnay  not  apply  at  all  in  some  cases: 

SENTENCE : 

(use)  declarative;  imperative;  interrogative 

t  exclamatory  f 
(form)  simple;  compound;  complex 

(if  simple)  *  subject: 

predicate : 

f  (complement)  object: ; 

attribute:  f 

t  subject  modifiers: t 

t  predicate  modifiers: t 

t  complement  modifiers:  | 

114 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

SENTENCE  : — Continued 

(if  compound)  first  member: 

second  member: 

I  third  member:    t 

etc. 

f  connective(s) :   t 

(proceed  from  *) 

(if  complex)  principal  clause :    

subordinate  clause  (s) : 

(with  syntax) 
(proceed  from  *) 
PHRASE  : 

(use)  noun;  adjective;  adverbial 

(form)  prepositional;  infinitive;  participial 

(syntax  =  ) 

(WORD)  : 
NOUN: 

(class)  proper;  common 

(person)  first;  second;  third 

(number)  singular;  plural 

t  collective  t 

(gender)  masculine;  feminine;  neuter;  common 

(case)  nominative;  possessive;  objective 

(syntax  =  ) 

VERB: 

(class)  regular;  irregular 

(principal   parts  = )    ,    . . . . ,    . . . . ,     

(use)  transitive;  intransitive;  copulative 
(if  transitive,  voice)  active;  passive 
115 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

VERB  : — Continued 

(mood)  indicative;  potential;  subjunctive;  im- 
perative 

(tense)  present;  past;  future;  present  perfect; 
past  perfect;  future  perfect 

(form)  simple;  progressive;  emphatic 

(syntax  = ) 

ADJECTIVE: 

(class)  descriptive;  demonstrative 
(comparison)    positive;    comparative;    super- 
lative 
(syntax  =  ) 

ADVERB : 

(class)  time;  place;  degree;  manner;  inter- 
rogation; negation;  assertion 

(comparison)  positive;  comparative;  superla- 
tive 

(syntax  =  ) 

PRONOUN: 

(class)  personal;  relative;  interrogative;  ad- 
jective 

(person)  first;  second;  third 
(number)  singular;  plural 
(gender)  masculine;  feminine;  neuter;  common 
(case)  nominative;  possessive;  objective 
(syntax  =  ) 

116 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  UPPER  GRADES 

PREPOSITION  : 

(syntax  = ) 

CONJUNCTION  : 

(class)  coordinating;  subordinating 
(syntax  =  ) 

INTERJECTION  : 

VERBAL : 

(class)  participle;  infinitive 

(if  participle)  noun;  adjective 

(if   infinitive)    noun;    adjective;    adverbial; 

predicate 
(syntax  = ) 


HISTORY  FACTS 

IN  discussing  examinations  in  my  book  on  "Man- 
agement/7 I  endeavored  to  draw  very  sharply  the 
distinction  between  the  testing  of  the  memory  and 
of  the  judgment.  "  Memory  tests  concern  the  prod- 
ucts of  judging;  Judgment  tests  concern  the  processes 
of  judging."  Just  as  we  must  make  this  distinction 
in  the  testing  of  school  work,  so  must  we  carry  this 
distinction  throughout  the  work  itself,  for,  as  I 
quoted  from  Bain,  there  are  "the  two  different  in- 
tellectual energies,  called  respectively,  Memory  and 
Judgment."  Much  of  our  failure  to  secure  what  we 
call  "results"  comes  from  failure  to  recognize  this 
fundamental  distinction.  In  all  of  the  content 
studies  we  present  a  great  variety  of  data,  both  facts 
and  principles,  with  no  expectation  that  the  pupil 
will  either  remember  or  be  able  to  recall  any  consider- 
able number  of  these  data. 

To  put  it  into  mathematical  terms,  for  the  sake  of 
clearer  illustration,  let  it  be  assumed  that  in  the 
teaching  of  an  hour's  lesson  in  geography,  one  hun- 

118 


HISTORY  FACTS 

dred  distinct  facts  have  been  presented.  At  the 
close  of  the  hour  the  number  of  these  facts  that  have 
been  absorbed  by  the  different  pupils  of  the  class  will 
vary  to  a  large  degree.  The  phlegmatic  A  has  caught 
and  held  five  of  these;  the  nervously  attentive  B, 
twenty;  C,  who  has  given  but  indifferent  attention, 
ten;  and  so  on  throughout  the  class.  Now  while  this 
variation  in  acquisition  is  to  be  expected  and  cannot 
be  prevented,  we  are  at  least  responsible  to  see  that 
five  of  the  facts  that  A  and  B  and  C  each  get  are  five 
of  the  important  ones  and  not  five  lacking  in  vital 
significance.  The  greatest  common  divisor  of  the 
numbers  of  facts  each  pupil  acquired  should  consist 
of  the  most  significant  and  important  of  the  hundred 
facts  presented.  That  is,  although  our  lesson,  through 
pedagogic  considerations,  has  included  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  host  of  data,  there  is  a  small  selection  of  these 
which  it  is  really  important  that  the  pupil  should  re- 
member. All  of  the  data  are  in  a  sense  important, 
yet  this  selected  group  is  necessary  to  him,  and  so  it 
is  our  duty  to  compel  him  to  get  this  group,  what- 
ever becomes  of  the  rest  of  the  material. 

For  example,  if  the  pupil  remembers  some  incident 
which  befell  Captain  Peary  on  his  trip  to  the  Pole, 
enlivening  and  interesting  and  true  as  that  incident 
may  be,  and  fails  to  learn  and  carry  with  him  the  fact 
that  it  was  the  North  Pole  and  not  the  South  Pole 

119 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

which  he  visited,  the  pupil  cannot  be  credited  with 
having  "  learned  his  lesson."  Again,  the  apochryphal 
narrative  concerning  the  Father  of  his  Country  and 
the  mischievous  hatchet  may  serve  to  add  zest  and 
background  to  the  study  of  Washington,  but  if  the 
child  recalls  this  and  remains  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
Washington  was  the  first  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  history  lesson  has  not  been  a  true  success. 
But  this  is  just  what  is  likely  to  happen  unless  the 
teacher  takes  special  precautions.  Each  lesson  must 
be  thoroughly  clinched  after  the  facts  have  been  driven 
home.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  trust  to  luck  that  the 
pupil  is  retaining  the  essentials  of  a  lesson,  or  that  he 
is  carrying  the  essentials  of  any  subject  through  its 
successive  lessons. 

It  has  been  found  practicable  in  managing  a  school 
to  provide  a  schedule  of  important  facts  in  certain 
subjects,  notably  history,  which  shall  serve  as  the 
skeleton  upon  which  the  pupil  shall  hang  all  his  study 
of  the  subject.  The  memorizing  of  any  one  of  these 
facts  is  never  to  precede  the  presentation  by  the 
teacher  and  the  consideration  by  the  pupil  of  all  the 
material  surrounding  this  fact.  There  is  a  serious 
danger,  however,  that  without  final  concentration  of 
the  attention  upon  the  essential  points  of  history, 
the  chronological  perspective  will  be  lost.  The  fol- 
lowing sets  of  facts,  one  in  American,  and  the  other 

120 


HISTORY  FACTS 

in  English  history,  have  proven  satisfactory.  The 
facts  are  memorized  in  the  grades  indicated,  and  are 
constantly  reviewed  in  the  succeeding  grades.  By 
this  means  each  pupil  has  always  at  hand  an  appro- 
priate background  against  which  he  may  put,  in  its 
proper  place,  whatever  comes  to  him  in  his  study  of 
history,  his  general  reading,  or  his  discussion  of  cur- 
rent topics. 

) 
UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 

Discovery 

(5A)     1.  Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492  and 
established  Spanish  claim  to  territory. 

2.  The   Cabots  discovered   the   mainland   of 
North  America  in  1497  and  established  Eng- 
lish claim  to  territory. 

3.  America  was  named  for  Americus  Vespu- 
cius. 

4.  Raleigh  made  two  attempts  to  found  a 
colony  in  Virginia,  and  though  they  were  un- 
successful they  turned  the  thought  of  the  Eng- 
lish toward  the  New  World. 

5.  Carrier's  discovery  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
La  Salle's  exploration  of  the  Mississippi,  estab- 
lished French  claim  to  territory. 

6.  Hudson  explored  the  Hudson  River  in  1609 
and  established  Dutch  claim  to  territory. 

9  121 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

Settlement 

(5B)     7.  The   first   permanent  English  colony  was 
founded  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  1607. 

8.  Slavery   was   introduced   into  Virginia   in 
1619. 

9.  Massachusetts  was  first  settled  by  the  Pil- 
grims, at  Plymouth,  1620. 

10.  New  Netherlands  was  first  settled  by  the 
Dutch,  who  founded  New  Amsterdam  in  1626, 
but  was  conquered  by  the  English  in  1664. 

11.  Pennsylvania  was  settled  by  William  Penn 
and  other  Quakers. 

12.  Maryland  was  settled  by  Lord  Baltimore 
and  other  Catholics. 

Colonial  Wars 

13.  Four  colonial  wars  were  waged  between 
France  and  England  because  both  countries 
claimed  the  territory  between  the  Allegheny 
River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

14.  The  last  and  most  important  of  the  colonial 
wars  was  the  French  and  Indian,  1755-1763. 

15.  The  enmity  of  the  Iroquois  toward  the 
French  was  a  valuable  aid  to  the  English  in 
controlling  the  Hudson  Valley. 

16.  The  battle  of  Quebec,  1759,  was  one  of  the 
most  important  in  United  States  history  as 
it  put  an  end  to  French  power  in  America. 

122 


HISTORY   FACTS 

The  Revolution 

(6A)  17.  The  Revolutionary  War,  1775-1783,  was 
caused  by  England's  unjust  treatment  of  her 
colonies,  as  to  taxation  and  trade  laws. 

18.  The    Declaration    of    Independence    was 
signed  at  Philadelphia,  July  4,  1776. 

19.  In  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  August,  1776, 
the  Americans  were  defeated  and  forced  to 
retreat  eventually  to  New  Jersey. 

20.  The  battle  of  Trenton,  December  25,  1776, 
was  an  encouraging  victory  for  the  Americans. 

21.  By   the   surrender  of   Burgoyne's  army, 
1777,  the  English  were  prevented  from  carry- 
ing out  their  plan  to  divide  the  colonies  along 
the  Hudson. 

22.  The  victory  at  Saratoga  finally  decided 
the  French  to  aid  the  Americans. 

23.  The  Revolutionary  War  was  concluded  by 
the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  to  Washington,  at 
Yorktown,  1781. 

24.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  1783,  at  the  close 
of  the  Revolutionary  War,  England  recognized 
American  independence,  and  boundaries  were 
fixed  at  the  Mississippi  River,  Florida,  and 
Canada. 

The  Nation 

25.  The  many  weaknesses  of  the  Articles  of 
Confederation,  under  which  the  colonies  had 

123 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

been  governed,  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution in  1788. 

26.  George  Washington  was  inaugurated  first 
President  of  the  United  States  in  1789. 

27.  Our  national  capitals  have  been  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Washington. 

28.  Louisiana  Territory  was  purchased  from 
France  in  1803,  and  afterwards  explored  by 
Lewis  and  Clark. 

29.  The  Second  War  with  England,  1812-1815, 
was  caused  by  British  impressment  of  Ameri- 
can sailors  and  other  interference  with  Ameri- 
can commerce. 

30.  Perry 's  victory  on  Lake  Erie  and  Harri- 
son's victory  at  the  Thames  River  gave  the 
United  States  control  of  Lake  Erie  and  saved 
the  Northwest  Territory. 

31.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  December, 
1814,  though  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  was 
fought  the  next  month. 

32.  The  Second  War  with  England  secured 
independence   for   American   commerce    and 
gained  the  respect  of  European  nations  for 
the  United  States. 

(6B)    33.  Florida  was  purchased  from  Spain  in  1819. 

34.  By  the  Missouri  Compromise,    1820,  Mis- 
souri was  admitted  as  a  slave  State,  while 
124 


HISTORY  FACTS 

slavery  was  prohibited  in  all  of  the  rest  of  the 
Louisiana  Territory  north  of  36  degrees,  30 
minutes. 

35.  The  Erie  Canal  was  completed  in  1825. 

36.  The  first  American  railroad  was  operated 
in  1828. 

37.  The  Mexican  War,  1846-1848,  was  caused 
by  the  annexation  of  Texas  and  dispute  over 
its  southern  boundary. 

38.  The  Americans  were  uniformly  successful 
throughout  the  Mexican  War,  which  was  con- 
cluded by  the  capture  of  Mexico  City  under 
General  Scott. 

39.  The  results  of  the  Mexican  War  were  the 
fixing  of  the  boundary  at  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
the  purchase  from  Mexico  of  California  and 
New  Mexico. 

40.  Gold  was  discovered  in  California  in  1848. 

41.  By  the  Compromise  of  1850  California  was 
to  be  admitted  as  a  free  State,  and  Utah  and 
New  Mexico  as  they  might  decide. 

42.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Law,  1854,  repealed 
the   Missouri   Compromise    by  allowing   new 
States  to  decide  the  slave  question  for  them- 
selves. 

43.  The  Dred  Scott  Decision,  1857,  virtually 
permitted  slavery  in  free  States. 

125 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

The  Civil  War 

44.  The  Civil  War,  1861-1865,  was  caused  by 
slavery,  and  more  directly  by  the  secession  of 
the  Southern  States. 

45.  In  the  Civil  War  the  plan  of  the  North 
was  to  blockade  Southern  ports  and  thus  cut 
off  supplies  to  the  Confederacy;  open  up  the 
Mississippi  and  thus  divide  the  Confederacy; 
and  to  capture  Richmond,   the   seat  of  the 
Confederate  Government. 

46.  The  Monitor-Merrimac  engagement,  1862, 
was  the  beginning  of  the  effective  blockade  of 
the  Southern  ports. 

47.  By  Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclamation, 
January  1,  1863,  the  slaves  were  freed  in  the 
seceding  States. 

48.  The  attempt  of  the  Confederates  to  invade 
the  North  was  decisively  checked  by  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863. 

49.  The  Confederacy  was  divided  at  the  Mis- 
sissippi by  the  capture  of  Vicksburg,  July  4, 
1863;  and  across  Georgia  by  Sherman's  march 
to  the  sea  in  1864. 

50.  Lee  left  Richmond   and   surrendered  in 
April,  1865. 

51 .  President  Lincoln  was  assassinated  in  April, 
1865. 

52.  The  Civil  War  resulted  in  the  abolition  of 
slavery  and  the4  reunion  of  the  States. 

126 


HISTORY  FACTS 

Reunion 

53.  Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia  in  1867. 

54.  The  War  with  Spain,  1898,  was  caused  by 
cruel  treatment  of  Cubans  by  Spaniards. 

55.  The  chief  events  of  the  Spanish  War  were 
the  capture  of  Manila  and  of  Santiago. 

56.  As  the  result  of  the  Spanish  War,  Cuba 
was  freed,  Porto  Rico  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States,  and  the  Philippines  were  bought  from 
Spain. 

Industrial 

57.  Important  American   inventions  in  their 
chronological  order  are:  Whitney's  cotton  gin, 
Fulton's  steamboat,  Morse's  telegraph,  Field's 
ocean  cable,  Bell's  telephone. 

ENGLISH  HISTORY 

Roman  Britain  and  Saxon  England 

(7A)    1.  Caesar  first  landed  in  Britain  in  55  B.C.,  and 
the  Romans  began  settling  there  soon  after. 

2.  In  410  the  Romans  left  Britain  and  the 
country  was  next  settled  by  the  Saxons. 

3.  Of  the  Saxon  kings,  Egbert  was  the  first  to 
be  called  King  of  England,  and  Alfred  was 
the  wisest  and  greatest. 

4.  England  was  conquered  by  the  Danes  in 
1013,  and  was  ruled  for  a  while  by  Danish  kings. 

127 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

The  Normans  and  Plantagenets 

5.  By  the  victory  at  Hastings,  1066,  William 
the  Conqueror  established  the  Norman  line  of 
kings. 

6.  Henry  II  became  king  in  1154,  establishing 
the  Plantagenet  line. 

7.  Ireland  came   under  English  rule  during 
the  twelfth  century  and  Wales  during  the  thir- 
teenth. 

8.  From   the   Plantagenet  kings    the    people 
wrested  political   rights,  securing  the  Magna 
Charta  in  1215  and  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1265. 

9.  The  Scots  repulsed  the  English  at  the  Battle 
of  Bannockburn,    1314,  and   became   an   in- 
dependent nation  in  1328. 

10.  Wiclif  and  Chaucer,  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, were  the  first  important  names  in  English 
literature. 

11.  The  Hundred  Years'  War,  1338-1453,  was 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  secure  the  French 
crown  for  English  kings. 

12.  The  deposition  of  Richard  II  in  favor  of 
Henry  IV  led  to  the  War  of  the  Roses  between 
the  houses  of  Lancaster  and  York. 

13.  The  battle  of  Bosworth  Field,  1485,  ended 
the  War  of  the  Roses  and  established  the  Tudor 
line  under  Henry  VII. 

128 


HISTORY  FACTS 

The  Tudors 

14.  During  the  reign  of  the  Tudors  there  was 
a  " Revival  of  Learning"  brought  about   by 
explorations  and  discoveries  and  the  invention 
of  printing. 

15.  Spain's  attempt  to  conquer  England  was 
ended  by  the  defeat  of  the  Armada  in  1588. 

16.  The    reign    of    Elizabeth    was    especially 
brilliant  and  was  marked  by  political,  commer- 
cial, and  literary  activity. 

17.  Among    the    leading    men  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan   period  were    Drake,   Frobisher,    and 
Raleigh  in  exploration,  and  Spenser,  Bacon, 
and  Shakespeare  in  literature. 

The  House  of  Stuart 

(7B)  18.  James  I,  son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  suc- 
ceeded Elizabeth  in  1603,  and  thus  established 
the  Stuart  line. 

The  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate 

19.  The    treacherous    and   arbitrary    rule    of 
Charles  I  led  to  civil  war,  the  execution  of  the 
king,  in  1649,  and  The  Commonwealth  and 
Protectorate. 

The  Restored  Stuarts 

20.  In   1660,   the   Stuarts   were    restored   to 
the  throne  under  Charles  II. 

129 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

21.  Prominent  names  in  literature  under  the 
Stuarts  were  Milton,  Bunyan,  Addison,  and 
Pope. 

The  Orange-Stuart  Period 

22.  The  reign  of  William  and  Mary  was  marked 
by  increase  in  religious  and  political  liberty  and 
freedom  of  the  press. 

23.  England  and  Scotland  were  reunited  in 
1707. 

24.  By  Queen  Anne's  War  England  gained 
Gibraltar,  Hudson  Bay  Territory,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  Newfoundland. 

25.  The   Stuart  line  ended  with  Anne,  who 
was  succeeded  in  1714  by  George  I  of  Hanover. 

The  House  of  Brunswick 

26.  Under  George  I,  Walpole  established  the 
modern  cabinet  system,  and  became  the  first 
prime  minister. 

27.  English  rule  in  India  was  established  by 
Clive  in  1756. 

28.  The  capture  of  Quebec,  by  Wolfe,  in  1759, 
secured  Canada  to  England. 

29.  The  American  Revolution  occurred  during 
the  reign  of  George  III  and  resulted  in  English 
recognition  of  American  independence  in  1783. 

30.  Eighteenth-century     literature     included 
Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and  Burns. 

130 


HISTORY  FACTS 

31.  In  the  War  with  France,  decisive  victories 
were  gained  at  the  naval  battle  of  Trafalgar 
in  1805,  and  the  land  battle  of  Waterloo  in  1815. 

32.  English  slave  trade  was  abolished  in  1807, 
and  the  slaves  were  emancipated  in  the  colonies 
in  1833. 

33.  The  invention  of  the  steam  engine  and  of 
textile  machinery  during  the  reign  of  George 
III  led  to  the  factory  system  and  stimulated 
mining  and  commerce. 

34.  Factory  reform  and  the  repeal  of  the  corn 
laws,  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
contributed  to  the  betterment  of  social  con- 
ditions. 

35.  Under  Victoria  occurred  the  Opium  War 
with  China,  the  Sepoy  rebellion  in  India,  the 
Crimean  War  with  Russia,  and  the  Boer  War 
in  South  Africa. 

36.  Nineteenth-century     literature     included 
Scott,    Macaulay,    Dickens,    Thackeray,    and 
Tennyson. 

37.  The  present  government   of  England   is 
republican  in  character  and  the  rule  of  the 
sovereign  is  nominal. 


VI 

SOME  DEVICES  IN  ARITHMETIC 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  OPERATIONS 

THE  distinction  between  Judgment  and  Memory 
holds  as  well  for  the  formal  studies  as  for  the  content 
studies.  In  fact,  there  is  even  greater  necessity  that 
a  substantial  fund  of  memorized  judgments  shall  be 
accumulated  in  the  study  of  arithmetic,  for  instance, 
than  for  history  or  geography.  The  elementary  judg- 
ments of  arithmetic,  once  memorized,  must  be*  sub- 
ject to  a  recall  so  immediate  as  to  merge  into  habit. 
When  the  pupil  has  once  acquired  the  concepts  of  the 
symbols  9  and  8,  and  their  product  72,  his  further  ef- 
fort is  to  be  concentrated  upon  fastening  these  sym- 
bols in  this  relationship,  so  that  to  the  presence  of 
8x9,  his  mind  may  instantly  react  with  the  thought 
72.  The  teaching  of  the  fact  that  8  times  9  is  72  will 
require  an  appeal  to  the  pupil's  judging  faculty;  but, 
this  once  accomplished,  it  will  be  a  decided  detriment 
to  the  pupil  if,  on  future  occasions  calling  for  the  mul- 
tiplication of  8  by  9,  he  is  obliged  to  retravel  the 

132 


SOME   DEVICES  IN   ARITHMETIC 

judging  process.  The  intrusion  of  the  judging  atti- 
tude while  he  is  multiplying  is  a  distinct  embarrass- 
ment, and  the  more  completely  habit  controls  the 
process  the  better  equipped  is  he  for  doing  such  work. 
The  appeal  to  the  reasoning  power  of  the  child  con- 
stitutes a  very  large  duty  in  our  work  in  arithmetic, 
but  we  are  not  justified  in  pursuing  this  phase  at  the 
expense  of  the  development  of  effective,  habitual  re- 
actions in  performing  the  fundamental  operations. 
We  need  then  to  employ  every  device  available  which 
will  help  to  reduce  these  reactions  to  the  state  of  au- 
tomatism. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  use  of  the  drill  cards 
in  number  work.  I  have  found,  however,  that  fol- 
lowing the  emphasis  placed  upon  the  multiplication 
table  in  the  early  school  years,  there  is  a  marked  weak- 
ness in  the  ability  of  the  pupils  to  add  and  subtract 
when  they  reach  the  higher  grades.1  How  to  reach  this 
difficulty  has  been  a  problem,  and  a  partial  solution 
has  been  found  in  the  scheme  which  I  here  describe. 
We  have  already  had  occasion  to  refer  (see  page  49) 
to  Dr.  Bagley's  statement  of  the  law  of  habit  build- 
ing: "  Focalization  of  consciousness  upon  the  proc- 
ess to  be  automatized,  plus  attentive  repetition  of 

1  This  was  clearly  brought  out  in  a  test  conducted  in  thirty- 
four  classes  of  grades  4B-8B,  before  the  work  outlined  here 
was  undertaken.  The  following  one  hundred  combinations 

133 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 


this  process  .  .  . "     The  two  key  words  of  this  law 
are  attentive  and  repetition.    We  are  familiar  with 

were  used,  to  which  pupils  gave  oral  answers,  speed  being  em- 


8X8 
5X5 
6X7 
3X9 
8X7 
4X6 

12X0 
9X3 
7X6 
8X9 
9X7 
6X5 
6X9 
4X5 
2X3 
9X9 
7X9 
5X8 
9X5 
8X0 
7X7 
5X7 

12X4 
7X11 
8X1 


64-8 
25—5 
42-6 
27—3 
56-8 
24—4 

0-12 
27-9 
42-7 
72—8 
63-9 
30—6 
54-6 
20—4 

6-2 
81-9 
63-7 
40—5 
45-9 
48—8 
49-7 
35—5 
48-12 
77-7 

8-7-8 


67+8 
54+7 
39+5 
45+8 
49+3 
56+5 
38+7 
67+8 
97+6 
75+7 
89+8 
86+9 
78+3 
97+5 
67+8 
35+6 
59+2 
46+8 
48+8 
57+7 
37+4 
65+6 
99+5 
76+7 
88+3 


62-8 
33-7 
92-6 
44-5 
88-9 
57-8 
75-7 
66-8 
65-6 
76-7 
54-8 
83-9 
47-8 
92-5 
38-9 
48-9 
87-8 
94-5 
56-8 
71-4 
35-8 
53-6 
84-7 
42-8 
63-5 


The  results  showed  average  percentages  of  correct  answers  as 
follows: 

Multiplication 94.0 

Division 91.4 

Addition 78.0 

Subtraction 57 . 2 

134 


SOME  DEVICES  IN  ARITHMETIC 

the  old  law  that  attention  and  drill  are  reciprocal, 
that  the  greater  the  attention  the  less  the  amount 
of  drill  required  to  secure  a  given  result,  and  con- 
versely. Moreover,  the  law  is  equally  old  and  reliable 
which  tells  us  that  attention  is  largely  dependent 
upon  interest;  so  that  the  pedagogic  prescription  is: 
interest  the  pupil  and  he  will  attend;  if  he  attends, 
he  will  acquire. 

Our  problem  then  is  not  only  to  devise  a  drill  in  the 
fundamental  operations  which  shall  be  a  proper  one, 
but  so  to  conduct  it,  by  the  creation  of  a  moving  in- 
terest, that  no  loss  shall  accrue  from  lagging  atten- 
tion. For  this  drill  we  use  sight  cards  of  the  usual 
type;  for  the  interest  we  use  a  stop  watch  or,  if  a  stop 
watch  is  not  available,  any  ordinary  watch  with  a  sec- 
ond hand. 

Both  in  addition  and  subtraction,  those  combina- 
tions which  involve  "  carrying "  of  the  units  place 
are  most  troublesome.  There  are  comparatively 
few  errors  made  in  such  combinations  as  52  +  3, 
65  +  4,  48  —  3,  etc.  In  addition,  the  carrying  combi- 

This  was  at  an  average  speed  of  7  minutes,  22  seconds,  for  all 
100  combinations.  It  will  be  noted  that  all  the  combinations  in 
addition  and  subtraction  involve  carrying.  As  the  experienced 
teacher  might  have  prophesied,  the  greatest  number  of  failures 
in  multiplication  and  division  were  on  12  X  Oand  0  -r-  12,  point- 
ing to  the  need  for  special  drill  on  these  particular  combinations. 

135 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

nations,  those  which  the  pupil  meets  in  adding  a  col- 
umn of  figures — are : 

82  +  9    724-9    62+9  and  so  on  to        .      .      12  +  9 

83  +  9    73+9    63+9  to 13+9 

83  +  8  73  +  8    63  +  8  to 13  +  8 

84+9  74  +  9  to 14  +  9 

84  +  8  to     14  +  8 

84  +  7  to 14  +  7 

85+9  to  .  15  +  9 


85  +  6  15  +  6 

86+9 


86  +  5 


89+2  19+2 

There  are  288  of  these  combinations.     The  cor- 
responding set  for  subtraction  is: 

136 


SOME  DEVICES  IN  ARITHMETIC 

98-9    88-9    78-9 18-9 

97-9    87-9 17-9 

97-8    87-8 17-8 

96-9 16-9 

96-8 16-8 

96-7 16-7 

95-9    , 


91-2  11-2 

There  are  324  of  these,  making  a  total  of  610  for 
both.  These  are  broken  into  six  series  of  one  hundred 
cards  each,  of  practically  equal  difficulty.  Series  I 
consists  of: 

82+9 

73  +  9 

63  +  8 

54  +  9 


85  +  9 

15  +  8 


16  +  6 
10  137 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

and  so  on,  made  up  of  one  hundred  combinations,  plus 
and  minus,  selected  diagonally  from  among  the  total. 
Series  II  consists  of  the  next  diagonal  selection,  and 
so  on. 

These  cards,  used  all  of  one  series  each  day,  are 
divided  into  two  fifties,  one  fifty  to  be  shown,  one  by 
one,  to  the  class,  and  the  other  fifty  to  be  dictated. 
Pupils  state  the  result  of  the  combinations  in  order, 
each  pupil  one,  around  the  class  as  many  times  as 
required.  In  case  of  failure,  the  card  is  put  aside  for 
special  drill,  and  the  next  pupil  given  the  next  com- 
bination. The  number  of  errors  made  is  noted,  and 
also  the  elapsed  time  for  the  entire  exercise  of  one 
hundred  cards. 

To  give  the  necessary  stimulating  interest,  the 
elapsed  time  is  regarded  as  a  score  and  the  class  is 
urged  to  reduce  its  own  record  or  to  defeat  the  score 
of  another  class  of  the  same  grade.  In  a  small  school 
where  there  is  but  a  single  class  in  a  grade,  the  class 
may  be  divided  into  two  competing  groups. 

It  is  clear  that  as  a  means  of  comparison  between 
two  classes  or  groups,  neither  the  time  alone  nor  the 
percentage  of  correct  answers  can  be  regarded  as  a 
just  basis.  One  class  might  go  through  the  exercise 
in  five  minutes,  and  another  in  three  minutes;  but 
the  speed  of  the  second  might  be  due  to  carelessness 
in  answering.  On  the  other  hand,  one  class  scoring  95 

138 


SOME   DEVICES  IN   ARITHMETIC 


per  cent  of  correct  answers  as  against  the  80  per 
cent  of  another  class,  might  owe  its  success  to  the 
extra  amount  of  time  consumed.  It  is  necessary  then 
to  combine  these  two  factors  of  speed  and  accuracy 
into  a  single  "  score."  To  do  this,  we  divide  the 
speed,  expressed  as  a  whole  number  of  seconds,  by  the 
degree  of  accuracy  expressed  as  a  decimal.  For  exam- 
ple, if  the  class  takes  6  minutes  14  seconds  for  the 
exercise  and  has  .91  of  correct  answers,  374-^.91  = 
41 1,  and  41 1  is  the  "  score  "  for  the  class.  An  increase 
both  of  speed  and  accuracy  will  of  course  reduce  this 
score;  for  instance,  94  correct  cards  in  5  minutes  49 
seconds,  349-^.94  =  371.  A  bettering  of  either  fac- 
tor, the  other  remaining  constant,  will  decrease  the 
score;  for  instance,  91  cards  in  5  minutes  49  seconds, 
349-^.91  =383;  and  94  cards  in  6  minutes  14  seconds 
=  398.  A  bettering  of  one  factor  alone,  may  or  may 
not  reduce  the  score;  for  instance,  90  cards  in  4  min- 
utes 30  seconds,  and  80  cards  in  4  minutes,  each  give 
a  score  of  300  (270  -*-  .90  =  300  =  240  •*•  80) .  The  score 
is  always  kept  in  whole  numbers,  a  fraction  being  dis- 
carded or  carried  to  the  next  unit,  according  to 
whether  it  is  less  than  one  half,  or  equals  or  exceeds  it. 
Pupils  answer  while  sitting,  thus  saving  the  time 
otherwise  consumed  by  rising.  Pupils  are  given  one 
chance  only  on  each  card;  that  is,  no  credit  is  allowed 
a  pupil  giving  a  wrong  answer  and  then  correcting 

139 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

himself.  In  dictating  questions  the  teacher  varies 
the  form,  thus:  17  subtract  9,  23  less  8,  83  take  away 
7,  had  73  lost  9;  65  and  9,  26  add  8,  45  plus  7,  etc. 
In  our  playrooms  we  keep  bulletin  boards  showing 
the  best  score  to  date,  by  grades,  crediting  the  class 
in  the  grade  which  holds  the  record. 

Teachers  are  directed  to  have  this  exercise  daity, 
and  they  record  the  score  on  the  blackboard,  making 
a  special  note  each  time  a  record  is  broken.  This 
score,  however,  is  not  accepted  as  official  as  a  com- 
parative guide  between  classes.  For  the  official  score 
the  principal  visits  the  room  and,  while  the  teacher 
conducts  the  exercise,  keeps  the  record  of  accuracy, 
notes  the  time,  and  calculates  the  score.  His  atti- 
tude toward  the  work  of  the  class,  one  of  encourage- 
ment or  criticism,  according  to  the  quality  of  their 
performance,  makes  for  improvement.  The  first 
scores  which  we  made  after  instituting  this  system 
were,  for  classes  of  the  grades  indicated: 


8B 

378 

273 

365 

8A 

442 

480 

437 

7B 

460 

429 

7A 

450 

424 

431 

565 

6B 

448 

505 

559 

424 

6A 

603 

575 

553 

842 

5B 

471 

597 

421 

568 

5A 

683 

570 

664 

4B 

825. 

683 

140 

SOME   DEVICES  IN   ARITHMETIC 

After  one  year,  the  best  scores,  for  each  grade,  were : 

Best  score  Year  previous 

8B  229  273 

8A  297  437 

7B  374  429 

7A  391  424 

6B  246  424 

6A  331  553 

5B  338  421 

5A  422  570 

4B  425  683 

This  shows  a  present  average  best  score  of  339  as 
against  424  the  year  previous,  or  a  general  gain  of 
twenty  per  cent.  It  is  of  incidental  interest  to 
note  that  the  score  for  the  cards  by  sight  is  almost 
invariably  less  than  that  for  those  by  hearing.  In 
many  cases  I  have  timed  each  fifty  cards  separately 
and  thus  obtained  independent  scores.  These  average 
to  the  effect  that  the  sight  cards  take  but  forty-one 
per  cent  of  the  gross  time,  and  the  hearing  cards 
the  other  fifty-nine  per  cent. 

That  pupils  could  be  trained  to  improvement  in 
this  work  was  to  be  expected,  and  the  fact  that  they 
did  so  improve  is  perhaps  not  a  sufficient  justification 
for  the  device,  which,  after  all,  is  but  a  device  and 
is  not  to  be  mistaken  for  an  end  in  and  of  itself.  To 
express  general  improvement  in  mathematical  terms 

141 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

is  not  always  possible,  nor  is  it  always  the  most  tell- 
ing expression.  However,  I  questioned  all  teachers 
who  had  been  using  this  method  for  a  year,  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  Is  there  an  appreciable  improvement  in  pupils' 
accuracy  in  their  computations  in  oral  and  written 
mathematics?    If  so,  roughly  speaking,  what  per  cent 
of  gain  has  been  made? 

2.  Have  these  drills  had  any  effect  upon  the  aver- 
age  ability   of   pupils   to   reason   in   mathematics, 
whether  to  improve  or  to  impair  that  ability? 

3.  Do  you  note  any  other  advantages  which  have 
accrued  from  these  drills? 

4.  When  you  introduced  Series  II,  what  was  the 
effect  upon  the  results  in  Series  I?    If  possible,  give 
answer  in  mathematical  terms,  e.  g.,  the  class  could  do 
Series  I  in  about  300;  by  the  time  they  were  able  to 
do  Series  II  in  300,  they  had  fallen  back  to  320  for 
Series  I. 

5.  What  modifications  of  the  method  do  you  sug- 
gest? 

The  answers  to  the  first  question  ranged  from  zero 
to  sixty  per  cent.  One  teacher  reported  "  no  appreci- 
able improvement";  another, " slight ";  another,  "not 
much."  All  others  reported  gains  of  five  per  cent 
or  more,  and  the  average  was  14.6  per  cent.  That 
is,  roughly  speaking,  the  drills  have  bettered  the 

142 


SOME  DEVICES  IN  ARITHMETIC 

accuracy  of  pupils'  work  by  fifteen  per  cent,  which 
we  consider  worth  while. 

The  general  answer  to  the  second  question  was 
"no  effect."  There  were  a  few  exceptions,  how- 
ever. One  says,  "Pupils'  ability  to  reason  is  im- 
proved through  raising  the  ideal  of  speed  and  ac- 
curacy." 

Among  the  "other  advantages"  accruing  from  the 
drills,  several  speak  of  the  increase  in  the  power  of 
sustained  attention;  others,  of  the  contribution  to  a 
good  class  spirit;  and  others,  of  the  value  of  the 
emphasis  placed  upon  addition  and  subtraction  as 
compared  with  the  other  processes. 

Only  six  out  of  thirty-four  were  able  to  reply  in 
mathematical  terms  to  the  fourth  question.  Their  es- 
timates would  average  to  this  statement:  "The  class 
could  do  Series  I  in  about  292;  by  the  time  they  were 
able  to  do  Series  II  in  292,  they  had  fallen  back  to 
324  for  Series  I. 

Various  replies  were  received  to  the  fifth  question, 
but  none  seemed  important. 

Another  measure  of  the  improvement  effected  was 
found  in  the  repetition  of  the  test  referred  to  on 
page  133.  One  year  after  that  test  was  made,  the 
identical  combinations  were  given  to  the  classes  of 
the  same  grade.  Although  the  number  of  classes  in 
each  grade  had  changed  some,  it  so  happened  that 

143 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

the  total  number  of  classes  was  the  same,  34.    The 
comparative  results  were: 

Former  test  Latter  test 

Multiplication 94.6  91.7 

Division 91.4  91.3 

Addition 78.0  81.4 

Subtraction..                              57.2  75.6 


Average 80.2  84.9 

This  shows  a  very  substantial  gain  in  the  subtraction 
work,  which  had  been  extremely  weak  before.  The 
multiplication  shows  a  slight  falling  off  and  the  divi- 
sion is  at  a  standstill,  due,  perhaps,  to  the  emphasis 
which  had  been  placed  upon  the  other  two  opera- 
tions. 

The  net  gain  of  4.7  per  cent  does  not  fairly  ex- 
press the  improvement,  in  that  it  does  not  take 
account  of  the  time  factor.  The  80.2  per  cent  was 
obtained  at  an  average  speed  of  442  seconds,  while 
the  84 . 9  per  cent  was  at  an  average  of  323  seconds. 
Equating  these  two  factors,  the  comparative  figures 
for  the  two  tests  are  551  and  380,  showing  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  time-accuracy  score  of  31  per  cent. 


144 


SOME  DEVICES  IN  ARITHMETIC 


A  SPECIAL  EXERCISE  IN  FUNDAMENTAL 
OPERATIONS 

One  of  the  exercises  frequently  employed  for  the 
development  of  the  power  of  rapid  calculation  con- 
sists in  the  performing  of  a  series  of  operations  dic- 
tated by  the  teacher.  For  example:  8,  multiply  by 
4,  add  18,  divide  by  5,  subtract  7,  multiply  by  15, 
subtract  12,  divide  by  11;  answer  =?  A  special  in- 
terest may  be  injected  into  such  an  exercise  if  the 
teacher  occasionally  permits  each  pupil  to  select  his 
own  starting  number,  and  then,  miraculously  to  the 
class,  brings  them  all  to  the  same  correct  result.1 

To  do  this,  of  course  it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher 
to  follow  the  operations  in  general  terms,  that  is,  by 
algebra,  while  the  pupils  are  working  in  terms  of  arith- 
metic; and  the  secret  of  the  uniform  results  lies  in 
eliminating  the  special  number  selected  at  some  time 
before  the  operations  are  completed.  For  instance: 
Select  a  number,  add  5,  multiply  by  4,  subtract  12, 
divide  by  4,  subtract  the  number  selected;  answer  =  ? 
One  pupil  selects  4,  another  5,  another  8,  another  15, 
and  so  on,  without  announcing  beforehand  what  his 


1  The  reader  may  recall  how  Edward  Eggleston's   "Hoosier 
Schoolboy"  puzzled  his  mates  with  a  problem  of  this  kind. 

145 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

number  is.  Their  work  is  represented  respectively, 
thus: 

4  5                  8                 15 

+  5  +5               +5               +5 

9  10                 13                 20 

X4  X4                X4                X4 

36  40                 52                 80 

-12  -12              -12              -12 


4)  24  4)  28  4)  40  4)  68 

6  7  10  17 

-4  -5  -8  -15 


The  teacher's  thought  in  the  meantime  is: 

X  =any  number 

X  +  5  add  5 

4X+20  multiply  by  4 

4X+8  subtract  12 

X  +  2  divide  by  4 

2  subtract  the  number. 

A  teacher  must  guard  against  making  too  free  a 
use  of  this  exercise,  which  is  a  form  of  spice,  and  must 
not  be  sprinkled  with  too  free  a  hand.  Two  or  three 
such  problems  occasionally  interpolated  in  a  morn- 
ing's work  will  serve  a  purpose  which  could  not  be 
gained  by  twenty  of  them  given  in  succession.  A 

H6 


SOME   DEVICES  IN   ARITHMETIC 

teacher  who  is  at  all  apt  in  algebra  may  readily  con- 
struct these  problems  as  he  proceeds.  A  few,  how- 
ever, are  here  given,  thirty  for  oral  drill  and  twenty 
for  written. 

ORAL 

1.  Any  number  X9  +  12  -^-  3  -  1  X  §  +  14  -^  2 

-  the  number  =  8 

2.  Number  +  3x4-6-^2  +  5-^2-  number 

=  4 

3.  Number  +  15-11X4-12-^2-2-5-  num- 

ber +  3  =  5 

4.  Number  +  5X6-  14  -=-2  +  13  ^-3-  num- 

ber +  3  -5-  5  =  2 

5.  Number  -1x8  +  10  -=-2  +  7-^4-  number 

X5-l-^3  =  3 

6.  Number  X5-7X2  +  24  -^  10  -  number  + 

5  X  3  -  3  =  15 

7.  Number  -^  2  +  7  X  4  -  18  -*•  2  -  number  X  5 

-  7  =  18 

8.  Number  +  12-^-4  +  6x4-36-^  number  + 

8  -5-  3  =  3 

9.  Number  -2x8  +  32-v-4  +  18-^2-  number 

+  5  =  16 

10.  Number  XlO-18-^2  +  9-^  number  X  4  -  2 

-5-3  =  6 

11.  Number  -5-5  +  2X10-12*2-  number  X  3 

-2-10 

12.  Number  +  7x6-8^-2-  17  +  number  X  7 

-1-20 

147 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

13.  Number  -1x5  + 13  X2- 16  +  number  X  5 

+  7  =  57 

14.  Number  X6  +  3  +  3  +  15  +  4-3X2- 

number  =  2 

15.  Number  +  2  +  7x4- 22 +  2-3  +  number 

=  i 

16.  Number  X3  + 12 +  3-2  +  8-  number  +  5 

X2  =  30 

17.  Number  -2X  10 +  25 +  5  +  3  +  2-  number 

X  8  -  1  =  15 

18.  Number  +  6  +  2  +  5X4- 12 +  2-  number 

-s-  2  =  5 

19.  Number  +  2X3  +  18  -5-3  --8-5-  number 

=  1 

20.  Number  -1x8  +  12  -5-4  +  15  -5-  2 -num- 

ber =  8 

21.  Number  X  10  -  8  +  2  +  4  +  number  X  8  +  2 

=  42 

22.  Number  4-4  +  6x8- 34 -=-2-  number  +  5 

=  12 

23.  Number  +5x4-4+8+1x2-  number 

+  4  =  10 

24.  Number  -2x6  + 20 +  2-4-7-  number  +  5 

=  8 

25.  Number  X  12  -8  +  4  +  5  +  3-  number  X  8 

+  2  =  10 

26.  Number  +  3  +  4x6- 14 +  2-  number  X  6 

+  15  =  2 

27.  Number  +  5x10-25  +  5-5  +  number  +  3 

=  5 

148 


SOME   DEVICES  IN   ARITHMETIC 

28.  Number  -3-^-2  +  4x4-  10  -5-  number  +  8 

=  10 

29.  Number  x9-6-^3  +  8X|-4^  number 

=  2 

30.  Number  --3  +  4x6-  14x2-  20  -f-  num- 

ber +  6  -*-  2  X  5  =  25 

WRITTEN 

31.  Number  X  12  +  158  -  2  -  46  -*•  3  +  145  -5-  2 

—  number  =  78 

32.  Number  +  135  X  27  -  2,382  -*-  3  +  578  -5-  9  - 

number  -=-  3  +  3  =  40 

33.  Number  -  23  X  51  +  2,873  -H  17  --  1  -*•  3  - 

number  +  2-35 

34.  Number  +  275  X  24  -  3,144  -  8  +  165  -  597 

H-  number  =  3 

35.  Number  -  47  X  55  +  765  4-  5  +  364  *  num- 

ber +  9  =  20 

36.  Number  -  4  +  316  X  12  -  1,220  X  15  -  38,580 

-r-  number  =  45 

37.  Number  X  75  --  345  X  &  +  748  --  564  * 

number  =  40 

38.  Number  -  49  X  81  +  5,178  ^  3  -  403  +  num- 

ber +  833  -5-  43  =  20 

39.  Number  -  5  +  721  X  35  -  18,228  X  4  +  280 

4-  28  -  number  =  1011 

40.  Number  X  64  -  8,072  X  f    +   5,045    -*-  num- 
1   ber  =  40 

41.  Number  -  79  X  25  +  1,765  X  4  +  40  -  100  + 

28  -  number  -  20 

149 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

42.  Number  4-  83  -5-  5  +  781f  X  55  -  32,989  +  11 

-  number  =  991 

43.  Number  -v-  7  +  371  X  91  -  7,735  -*-  26  +  385 

X  2  -  number  =  2,772 

44.  Number  X  98  -  3,672  -5-  2  +  723  +  7  +  159  -s- 

number  X  2  =  14 

45.  Number  X  36  +  1,728  -5-  9  +  640  X  f  -  357  -H 

3  -  number  =  89 

46.  Number  +  57  X  72  -  2,448  -s-  9  -  184  •*-  num- 

ber =  8 

47.  Number  -  6  +  115  X  33  -  3,740  X  4  -5-  22  - 

number  =  10 

48.  Number  -  3  X  26  +  156  -5-  13  +  128  -j-  2  - 

number  +  3  X  4  =  280 

49.  Number  +  701  X  12  -  3,456  X  §  -  1,480  -5-  8  - 

number  +  72  =  300 

50.  Number  -5-  6  +  372  X  42  -  15,624  -s-  number 

=  7 


MULTIPLICATION  DRILL  CHART 

The  multiplication  table,  for  all  numbers  from  zero 
to  twelve,  involves  169  permutations  or  91  combina- 
tions. For  use  in  drill  work  these  combinations  may 
be  written  each  upon  a  separate  card,  but  in  place  of 
this,  or  to  supplement  this,  a  drill  chart  may  be  easily 
constructed. 

This  device  consists  of  two  discs,  in  appropriate 
frame,  on  each  of  which  is  written  the  set  of  numbers, 

150 


SOME   DEVICES  IN   ARITHMETIC 

zero  to  twelve.  By  revolving  these  discs  any  combi- 
nation may  be  brought  into  view.  This  will  be  read- 
ily understood  by  a  glance  at  this  illustration,  which 
shows  the  combination  10x7  in  view. 


FIG.  i 


A  turn  of  either  of  the  discs,  made  by  pushing  the 
cogs  at  the  upper  corners  of  the  frame  until  they  co- 
incide with  the  edge  of  the  frame,  changes  the  combi- 
nation. The  other  side  of  the  chart  is  the  same  except 
that  the  plus  sign  is  used,  making  the  chart  available 
for  a  certain  amount  of  addition  drill. 

This  chart  may  easily  be  made  by  using  the  follow- 
ing diagrams,  drawn  to  scale,  as  patterns.  Three 
pieces  of  cardboard,  each  22"  by  11",  are  required. 
From  these,  five  parts  are  cut  out,  two  according  to 
pattern  A,  one  according  to  pattern  B,  and  two  accord- 
ing to  pattern  C. 

151 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


FIG.  2 


WY  =  22"      EF  =  GH=AC 
If     WJ = JU  =  UK  =  KY  =  KK'  =  JJ' = 5i" 
TV=JK  =  11" 


FIQ.  3 


Inasmuch  as  the  disc  (pattern  C)  is  based  on  a  circle 
divided  into  thirteenths,  a  difficult  arc  to  mark  off, 
the  exact  form  and  size  of  a  part  of  the  disc  is  here 


SOME   DEVICES   IN   ARITHMETIC 

given,  a  tracing  of  which  may  be  taken  and  applied 
around  the  circle. 


FIG,  4 


Between  each  of  the  two  outside  parts  of  the  frame 
(pattern  A)  there  are  laid  the  two  discs,  on  their  appro- 
priate centers,  surrounded  by  the  middle  part  (pat- 
tern B).  A  pin  or  paper  fastener  may  be  used  as  the 
center  pivot  on  which  the  discs  shall  rotate.  The 
three  parts  of  the  frame  are  either  glued  together  or 
bound  together  by  paper  fasteners. 

The  drawing  of  the  numbers  on  the  discs,  prefer- 
ably in  crayon,  not  in  ink,  should  be  done  after  the 
chart  is  put  together,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  each  cog  sets  in  its  true  position  before  the  num- 
ber is  written  upon  the  disc.  On  the  reverse  side  of  the 
disc  the  same  number  should  be  printed  upon  the  par- 
ticular cog  which  is  in  view  when  that  number  shows 
through  the  frame.  In  the  illustration  given,  for  in- 
stance, while  one  side  shows  10x7,  it  happens  that 
the  reverse  side  shows  3  +  6,  as  is  indicated  by  the  fig- 
ures on  the  cogs. 

11  153 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

THE  MENSURATION  OF  THE  TRAPEZOID  l 

A  number  of  methods  of  demonstrating  the  formula 
for  the  area  of  the  trapezoid  are  available.  Two  are 
given.  The  plain  words  BASE  and  TOP  are  used  as 
names  for  the  parallel  sides. 

(1)  Cut  out  the  trapezoid  ABCD.    Fold  DC  over  on 


BASE 


BASE  \ dO± 


B 

FIQ.  1. 


AB  and  cut  along  the  fold.    Replace  the  upper  por- 
tion along  the  side  of  the  lower,  as  in  Fig.  1. 

This  gives  a  parallelogram,  whose  base  is  BASE 
-I-  TOP  and  whose  altitude  is  \  ALTITUDE.  Hence  the 
area  of  the  parallelogram,  which  is  that  of  the  equiva- 
lent trapezoid,  is: 

,  ALTITUDE 

(BASE  4-  TOP)  X ^— 


1  This  and  the  following  section  are  reprinted  from  School 
Work,  January,  1903. 

154 


SOME  DEVICES   IN  ARITHMETIC 

(2)  Cut  along  the  line  DF  and  replace,  forming  a 
triangle,  whose  area,  and  hence  that  of  the  equivalent 


Fio.  2. 


trapezoid  (Fig.  2),  is: 


(BASE  +  TOP)  X 


ALTITUDE 


Either  of  these  two  figures  may  be  cut  out  of  thin 
wood  in  two  pieces  hinged  at  F,  making  a  model  which 
forces  clearly  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  equiva- 
lence of  the  original  trapezoid  and  the  resulting  rec- 
tangle or  triangle.  The  triangle  method  has  the  advan- 
tage of  not  disturbing  the  notion  of  the  ALTITUDE, 
which  remains  the  same  in  both  trapezoid  and  tri- 
angle. The  method  of  passing  a  line  through  F  paral- 
lel to  AD  and  fitting  the  resulting  triangle  on  to  the 
upper  half  presents  the  difficulty  of  the  average  be- 
tween BASE  and  TOP. 

155 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

LONGITUDE  AND  TIME 

This  subject  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  difficult  to 
grasp  of  any  of  the  grammar-grade  topics.  The  fol- 
lowing outlines  an  order  of  presentation  which  has 
been  found  to  give  good  results :  Using  the  globe,  re- 
view latitude  and  longitude,  meridians  and  prime 
meridians,  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  the  direction 
of  this  revolution  from  west  to  east,  the  consequent 
"  rising"  of  the  sun  in  the  east,  and  the  apparent  mo- 
tion of  the  sun  from  east  to  west.  The  first  appear- 
ance of  the  sun  at  any  place  is  called  "sunrise"  for 
that  place.  As  the  sun  travels  westward,  easterly 
places  have  sunrise  before  westerly  places.  Hence, 
when  it  is  sunrise  at  a  westerly  point,  it  is  after  sun- 
rise at  an  easterly  point.  Similarly  develop:  When  it 
is  sunset  at  a  westerly  point,  it  is  after  or  later  than  sun- 
set at  an  easterly  point;  when  the  sun  is  directly  over- 
head, or  on  the  meridian  of,  a  westerly  point,  it  is  past 
the  meridian  of  an  easterly  point,  i.  e.,  when  it  is  noon 
at  a  westerly  point,  it  is  after  noon  at  an  easterly  point; 
when  it  is  4  P.M.  at  any  point,  it  is  after  4  P.M.  at  any 
point  east  of  it;  when  it  is  7  A.M.  at  any  point,  it  is 
after  or  later  than  7  A.M.  at  any  easterly  point;  when  it 
is  5  P.M.  at  any  point,  it  is  earlier  than  5  P.M.  at  any 
westerly  point;  and  finally,  at  any  given  moment 
easterly  places  have  later  time  and  westerly  places  have 

156 


SOME   DEVICES   IN   ARITHMETIC 

earlier  time.  This  fact  of  difference  of  time  and  of 
earlier  and  later  time,  dependent  upon  longitude, 
having  been  established  (and  this  point  might  well 
mark  the  end  of  the  first  lesson),  it  remains  to  consider 
the  exact  relation  between  the  difference  of  time  and 
the  difference  of  longitude. 

From  noon  to  noon  for  any  given  place,  the  sun  has 
traveled  360°  of  longitude,  but  from  noon  to  noon  for 
any  given  place  is  a  cycle  of  twenty-four  hours  of  time. 
Hence  the  rate  of  the  sun's  traveling  is  360°  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  15°  in  one  hour. 

On  the  blackboard  build  up  this  diagram  :• 


15°  30°  45°  60°  75°9<ri05°1200135°1SO°165°1800       EA8T 
iB  IB  15  1      16     5  N5  •     15  15  16   U5  °  Longitude 


WEST     180016501501350120°105°9007 
Longitude  °|  IB  IB  16  IB  15  15 


Time  -  lira. 


Use  this  diagram  as  the  basis  of  a  large  number  and 
variety  of  oral  questions.  The  solutions  should  be 
indicated  by  colored  chalks  to  separate  the  different 
questions.  The  diagram  as  here  shown  indicates 
that  the  following  questions  have  been  asked : 

157 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

(1)  What  is  the  difference  in  longitude  between 
points  30°  E.  and  105°  E.? 

(2)  What  is  the  difference  in  longitude  between 
points  150°  W.  and  45°  W.? 

(3)  What  is  the  difference  in  longitude  between 
points  45°  E.  and  90°  W.? 

(Let  the  pupils  suggest  questions  of  the  above  na- 
ture.) 

(4)  What  is  the  difference  in  time  between  points 
45°  W.  and  165°  W.? 

(5)  What  is  the  difference  in  time  between  points 
15°  E.  and  150°  E.? 

(6)  What  is  the  difference  in  time  between  points 
30°  W.  and  105°  E.? 

(Let  pupils  suggest  questions  of  the  above  nature.) 

(7)  When  it  is  noon  at  75°  W.,  what  time  is  it  at 
15°  E.? 

(8)  When  it  is  11  P.M.  at  30°  E.,  what  time  is  at 
120°  W.? 

At  an  early  stage  appeal  to  the  geographical  interest 
by  using  as  a  table  of  longitudes: 
Approximately,  for  oral  work: 
0° .          London. 

15°  E.       Berlin  (13°  24'),  Vienna  (16°  23'). 
30°  E.       St.  Petersburg  (30°  19'),  Constantinople 

(28   59'). 

45°  E.       Aden  (44°  59'). 

158 


SOME  DEVICES   IN  ARITHMETIC 

60°  E.  Mauritius  (57°  30')- 

75°  E.  Bombay  (72°  49'). 

90°  E.  Calcutta  (88°  23'). 

105°  E.  Singapore  (103°  51'). 

120°  E.  Manila  (120°  58'). 

135°  E.  Vladivostock  (131°  53'),  Yokohama  (139° 

36'). 

150°  E.  Sydney  (151°  13'). 

15°  W.  Freetown  (13°  10'). 

30°  W.  Azores  Islands  (25°  to  31°). 

45°  W.  Rio  Janeiro  (43°  8'). 

60°  W.  Buenos  Ayres  (58°  22'),  Martinique  (61° 
10'). 

75°  W.  New  York  (74°  0'). 

90°  W.  St.  Louis  (90°  15'). 

105°  W.  Denver  (105°). 

120°  W.  Carson  City  (119°  46'),  San  Francisco  (122° 

25'). 

135°  W.  Sitka  (135°  20'). 

150°  W.  Honolulu  (157°  52'). 

Many  questions  of  this  kind  should  be  given  as 
"oral"  arithmetic  until  the  picture  of  the  relation  of 
longitude  to  time  is  well  fixed  in  the  pupil's  mind  and 
the  process  begins  to  be  automatic.  Then  proceed 
with  "written"  arithmetic  questions  involving  min- 
utes and  seconds.  Into  the  hands  of  any  pupil  who 

159 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

fails  to  grasp  the  subject  put  a  model,  made  of  bristol- 
board  or  wood,  according  to  the  following  pattern: 


*>v 

•^r.          •, 

L*          / 


*'$ 


Cut  out  circle  above  and  fasten  pin  through  in     ^  \ 

CD  nf 

>  center*  of  that  circle  and  this.  /        ~* 

t^\  r~s 


I     s 


^ 


3* 

160 


VII 

THE  USE  OF  THE  BLACKBOARD 

UP  to  a  few  years  ago  any  essay  concerning  the 
school  blackboard  could  refer  only  to  a  narrow  panel  of 
inferior  slate  or  painted  wood  or  perhaps  a  single  easel 
of  slated  surface.  To-day  the  graded  school  is  every- 
where equipped  with  a  comparatively  large  amount 
of  blackboard  space,  and  every  effort  is  made  by  pro- 
gressive superintendents  of  school  buildings  to  insist 
upon  a  quality  of  surface  which  shall  contribute  most 
satisfactorily  to  the  work  of  the  school. 

In  the  meantime  the  blackboard  has  become  one  of 
the  recognized  implements  in  the  teacher's  tool  chest, 
and  the  use  of  the  blackboard  has  become  one  of  the 
most  important  features  in  the  technique  of  teaching. 
It  is  unfortunately  true  that  many  a  teacher  falls 
short  of  realizing  the  full  value  of  the  blackboard  as  an 
essential  element  in  the  teaching  process.  I  recently 
visited  one  teacher,  for  instance,  who  had  covered  her 
blackboard  for  a  space  of  eight  running  feet  with  a 
denham  background  upon  which  were  hung  samples  of 

161 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

pupil's  written  work,  the  while  certain  spaces  of  bare 
wall  remained  undecorated.  It  is  not  that  such  a 
teacher  would  surrender  the  blackboard  altogether  or 
that  such  a  teacher  does  not  make  a  certain  profitable 
use  of  the  board,  but  rather  that  she  fails  amply  to 
comprehend  its  tremendous  pedagogic  value. 

There  are  many  teachers  who  give  little  attention 
to  the  psychology  of  sense-impression.  This  is  true 
even  in  the  appeal  to  the  sense  of  hearing.  "  Use  of 
voice"  means  to  the  average  teacher  only  that  he  shall 
not  raise  his  voice,  shall  not  rant,  in  short,  shall  not 
develop  what  is  popularly  known  as  the  "  school- 
teacher's voice. "  It  does  not  occur  to  him  deliberate- 
ly to  train  his  voice  and  perfect  his  control  of  it  for 
pedagogic  purposes.  He  may  recognize  the  necessity 
of  mastering  the  "five  formal  steps"  in  presentation, 
but  not  that  of  mastering  his  voice,  the  chief  instru- 
ment through  which  he  presents  the  "steps"  whether 
formal  or  informal. 

Mere  sympathy  for  the  child  who  must  listen  to  the 
same  voice  for  the  greater  part  of  the  school  day 
should  impel  every  teacher  so  to  train  his  voice  that 
it  shall  be  relieved  as  far  as  possible  of  monotony.  He 
should  practice  variety  of  modulation  out  of  mere  pity 
for  his  auditors,  if  for  nothing  more.  Every  adult  re- 
calls some  hour-long  lecture  to  which  he  has  been 
subjected  with  nothing  left  of  recollection  but  a  sense 

162 


THE   USE  OF  THE   BLACKBOARD 

of  pain,  due  to  the  speaker's  failure  to  use  his  voice  to 
advantage. 

But  variation  in  voice,  necessary  as  it  is,  is  not  all 
that  is  demanded  of  the  teacher.  The  professional 
teacher  will  study  the  individual  qualities  of  his  own 
voice,  and  so  master  its  tone  and  timbre  that  he  can 
make  it  do  his  will.  As  he  wills,  in  turn,  to  command, 
to  reprimand,  to  soothe,  to  stimulate,  to  attract,  to 
distract,  his  voice  does  his  bidding  and  his  pupils  are 
controlled  at  a  minimum  of  strain.  Not  only  this, 
but  teaching  is  an  art  and  shares  with  other  arts  the 
dictum  that  the  best  art  conceals  art.  Just  as  the 
painting  must  not  betray  the  painter's  struggle  to 
master  the  mechanics  of  his  art,  just  as  the  poem 
must  bear  no  trace  of  the  poet's  efforts  to  acquire  the 
technique  of  verbal  construction,  just  as  the  violinist 
swaying  his  audience  by  the  overpowering  beauty  of 
his  performance  must  inject  no  hint  of  the  years  of 
toil  spent  in  formal  exercises,  so  in  the  teacher's  art 
there  must  intrude  no  indication  of  the  strain  of  prep- 
aration. 

The  wise  teacher  realizes  that  in  that  part  of  his 
work  which  consists  in  " impression"  of  his  pupils,  he 
is  guilty  of  waste  when  he  continues  to  impress  them 
through  the  single  sense  of  hearing.  The  skillful 
teacher  instinctively  teaches  "chalk  in  hand,"  and 
loses  no  legitimate  opportunity  to  supplement  his 

163 


*       OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

appeal  to  the  pupils'  hearing  with  a  contemporaneous 
appeal  to  their  sense  of  sight.  We  appreciate  the 
popularity  of  that  form  of  entertainment  known  as 
a  "chalk  talk"  wherein  a  lecturer  sketches  a  pic- 
ture while  he  maintains  a  running  monologue  on  the 
subject  of  the  picture  and  things  in  general.  The 
teacher  is  not,  of  course,  to  aim  to  become  a  vaude- 
ville artist,  but  it  is  certainly  not  out  of  place  for  him 
to  learn  from  such  a  performer  whatever  he  may  of 
the  psychology  of  attention. 

The  children,  while  listening  to  the  teacher,  are 
bound  to  look  at  something.  If  the  ear  alone  is  to  be 
appealed  to,  why  not  require  the  pupils  to  close  their 
eyes  while  listening.  Concentration  of  attention  im- 
plies the  exclusion  of  contrary  attractions.  The  full 
beauty  of  a  symphony  is  best  to  be  sensed  by  closing 
the  eyes  and  surrendering  the  whole  field  of  attention 
to  the  sense  of  hearing.  Every  sensation  of  touch,  or 
taste,  or  smell,  unless  it  might  happen  to  illustrate 
the  theme  of  the  music,  is  a  distinct  distraction,  and 
should  be  avoided  if  possible.  So  in  the  classroom, 
if  the  teacher's  appeal  to  the  pupils'  attention  is  to 
be  made  solely  through  the  gateway  of  the  ear,  all 
other  gateways  should  be  barred  and  bolted.  But  if 
the  attention,  instead  of  being  distracted,  can,  on  the 
contrary,  be  augmented  through  the  play  of  the  other 
senses,  then  good  pedagogy  demands  that  those  other 

164 


THE   USE  OF  THE   BLACKBOARD 

senses  should  be  used,  and  used  freely  and  intelli- 
gently. 

The  sense  which,  in  the  classroom,  is  the  most  valu- 
able as  supplementing  that  of  hearing  is  of  course 
that  of  sight.  The  whole  personality  of  the  teacher 
forms  a  sight  impression  which  may  make  or  mar  a 
lesson.  His  attitude,  his  posture,  his  gestures,  his 
facial  animation — all  are  elements  which  contribute 
toward  attracting,  distracting,  or  repelling  the  class. 
That  is,  the  teacher's  personal  presence  may  attract 
attention  directly  to  the  subject,  reinforcing  it  and 
welding  its  materials;  or  it  may  distract  attention 
from  the  subject-matter  to  the  speaker  himself  and 
his  idiosyncrasies;  or  it  may  repel  attention,  through 
its  very  colorlessness,  from  both  the  subject-matter 
and  the  teacher.  He  will  therefore  study  to  make 
his  personality  a  positive  force  contributing  to  his 
pedagogic  method  and  not  subtracting  from  it  or 
negativing  it. 

With  chalk  in  hand,  the  teacher  is  doubly  armed 
in  his  assault  upon  the  citadel  of  attention.  For 
example,  each  verbal  stroke  of  emphasis  has  its  ac- 
companiment in  the  written  stroke.  The  strange 
word  to  which  the  tongue  can  give  but  a  partial  intro- 
duction, is  simultaneously  written  on  the  blackboard, 
not  as  a  stilted  exercise,  but  as  a  natural  incident 
causing  no  appreciable  extra  expenditure  of  time. 

165 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

Above  all,  no  formal  recognition  is  to  be  made  of  this 
extra  appeal  to  attention.  The  teacher  will  not  say, 
"this  is  the  way  that  word  is  spelled,"  "be  sure  you 
learn  how  to  spell  this  word,"  or  any  equivalent  of 
"watch  me  while  I  write  this  word."  This  would  be 
as  inartistic  as  for  him  to  say,  "did  you  notice  that 
when  I  spoke  the  word  'flit/  I  gesticulated  thus?" 
There  is,  too,  an  incidental  gain  that  is  not  to  be  under- 
valued. The  use  of  the  blackboard  in  this  and  similar 
ways  is  one  more  evidence  of  the  teacher's  aliveness 
to  his  subject.  Interest  begets  interest.  Enthusiasm 
is  contagious.  The  listless  teacher  cannot  condemn 
his  class  for  inattention.  The  intelligently  alert 
teacher  cannot  help  carrying  his  class  with  him,  and 
the  use  of  the  blackboard  is  one  of  the  tangible  evi- 
dences of  his  alertness. 

If  all  this  holds  good  for  the  impression  which  the 
teacher  aims  to  make  upon  a  class,  it  is  equally  valid 
when  it  is  the  pupil  and  not  the  teacher  who  is  talk- 
ing. The  teacher's  use  of  the  blackboard  must  be 
patently  free  and  unrestrained,  and  the  pupils  should 
be  trained  toward  a  like  freedom  and  facility.  It  will 
not  come  except  by  patient  effort  and  encouragement, 
but  it  can  be  gained  to  a  varying  degree  by  every 
pupil .  We  are  only  j  ust  beginning  to  make  reasonable 
use  of  the  social  value  of  the  class.  The  recitation  is 
no  longer  addressed  solely  to  the  teacher,  but  also  to 

166 


THE   USE  OF  THE  BLACKBOARD 

the  class  or  the  individual  interlocutor  in  the  class. 
The  pupil  must  be  led  to  feel  that  the  nearest  panel 
of  blackboard  is  his  whenever  he  needs  it  to  illustrate 
a  point  in  his  recitation,  and  he  should  be  trained  to 
turn  to  it  instinctively  whenever  he  can  use  it  to 
advantage. 

We  are  fast  learning  that  all  impression  and  no  ex- 
pression makes  Jack  a  dull  boy,  and  yet  for  many  rea- 
sons teachers  find  it  difficult  to  yield  the  floor  to  the 
pupils.  For  one  reason,  the  tradition  is  a  strong  one 
that  defines  a  recitation  as  the  stating  of  a  direct  ques- 
tion by  the  teacher  and  its  answer  by  the  pupils.  For 
another,  under  the  pressure  of  the  time  schedule,  the 
teacher  feels  hurried  and  believes  that  valuable  time 
is  lost  when  the  class  does  much  of  the  talking.  So  we 
find  many  teachers  doing  for  the  pupils  what  they 
should  be  doing  for  themselves. 

As  one  goes  through  the  classrooms  of  a  school,  he 
is  rightly  suspicious  of  a  teacher's  method  if  he  inva- 
riably finds  the  blackboard  immaculately  clean  or  bar- 
ren of  pupils'  work.  It  would  seem  a  fair  test  to  ask 
how  many  pupils  of  a  class  at  the  close  of  a  day  have 
not  done  some  work  at  the  blackboard,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  such  pupils  ought  to  be  very  small.  In 
much  of  the  class  work  it  is  economy  for  some  one  to 
act  as  secretary  for  the  class  and  carry  on  at  the  board 
the  exercise  which  belongs  to  the  class  as  a  whole.  It 

167 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

is  also  true  that  the  teacher  is  best  qualified  to  act  as 
secretary,  but  it  may  often  be  questioned  whether  it 
is  wise  for  him  to  do  so.  The  little  longer  which  it 
takes  for  the  pupil  to  do  the  same  work  is  probably 
repaid  in  gain  to  the  particular  pupil  and  in  class  in- 
terest. 

The  use  which  the  teacher  will  make  of  the  black- 
board will  vary  somewhat  with  the  grade  of  the  class. 
The  lower  the  grade  the  greater  the  necessity  for  the 
teacher's  exercising  great  care  in  her  board  writing. 
The  teacher's  work  is  always  a  model  to  the  pupils,  but 
most  so  in  the  lowest  grades. 

It  may  be  a  question  to  be  settled  on  its  own  merits 
as  to  whether  words  should  ever  be  printed  on  the 
board,  but  it  is  certain  that,  if  so,  they  should  be  prop- 
erly printed.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  such  exam- 
ples of  lettering  as: 

~N 

Instead  of  letters  indiscriminately  embellished  with 
curlycues  such  as  these,  a  simple  font  should  be  used, 
one  which  is  consistently  free  from  extra  and  mean- 
ingless marks.  It  is  true  that  book  print  uses  a  font  of 
type  in  which  there  is  shading  and  elaborate  complex- 
ity of  line,  but  it  is  impossible  for  the  teacher  to  copy 
this  and  so  he  should  frankly  not  attempt  to.  For 

168 


THE   USE   OF  THE   BLACKBOARD 

instance  the  letter  h.  No  teacher  could  in  less  than 
five  minutes  make  a  letter  on  the  board  which  would 
faithfully  reproduce  this  form:  h;  she  can  how- 
ever easily  make  the  form  h  her  model  and  sketch 
quite  rapidly  such  a  font  as  : 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

In  the  lower  grades  a  certain  amount  of  black- 
board decoration  is  permissible,  provided  that  it  is 
really  decorative  and  not  grotesque;  but  it  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  decoration  is  the  least  prof- 
itable use  to  which  the  board  can  be  put.  Allied 
to  this  is  the  use  of  the  board  for  lists  of  names  of 
merit  with  stars  or  flags  to  indicate  degrees  of  excel- 
lence, all  of  which  may  be  more  or  less  legitimately 
effective  in  the  middle  grades,  but  which  should  dis- 
appear, as  less  artificial  incentives  operate  to  control 
pupils. 

Few  permanent  entries  should  be  made  on  the  board. 
Certain  records,  the  day's  register  and  attendance  of 
pupils,  for  instance,  may  be  kept  there,  but  the  largest 
possible  space  should  be  reserved  for  everyday  use. 
Tables  or  tabular  forms  may  be  reserved  for  a  few 
days  at  a  time,  such  as  an  outline  for  geographical 
study,  thus: 

12  169 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

TOPICAL   STUDY   OF   A   COUNTRY. 

1.  Location  4.  Surface  8.  Commerce 

2.  Size  and  shape   5.  Drainage         9.  Cities 

3.  Coast  line  6.  Climate          10.  Government 

7.  Resources 

The  chief  advantage  of  using  the  blackboard  for  this 
is  that  as  fast  as  the  pupils  become  adept  in  its  use  in 
part,  that  part  may  be  erased  until  the  outline  event- 
ually disappears.  But  if  it  is  to  be  kept  intact  for  any 
length  of  time,  it  would  be  better  to  print  it  on  paper 
in  chart  form  and  thus  release  the  board  space  for 
other  purposes. 

One  of  the  pedagogic  means  commonly  neglected 
is  the  use  of  colored  chalk.  In  advocating  its  liberal 
use  I  would  not  be  understood  as  recommending  its 
display  merely  that  there  may  be  a  touch  of  color  on 
the  board.  To  write  one  sentence  in  red,  the  next  in 
white,  and  the  next  in  blue,  would  be  inane.  But 
just  as  the  skillful  teacher  uses  the  blackboard  with  a 
definite  purpose,  knowing  exactly  what  part  in  his 
art  of  teaching  each  stroke  contributes,  so  will  he 
deliberately  and  purposefully  substitute  some  color 
for  white  wherever  his  method  will  gain  thereby. 
Much  of  the  time  of  the  teacher  is  spent  in  developing 
in  his  pupils  the  power  of  voluntary  attention,  and 
yet  there  is  frequent  opportunity  for  the  legitimate 

170 


THE  USE  OF  THE  BLACKBOARD 

use  of  involuntary  attention.  In  the  course  of  a 
presentation  lesson,  when  it  would  be  a  distinct  loss 
to  interrupt  the  trend  of  thought  to  secure  volitional 
attention  from  the  wavering  few  who  are  found  in 
every  class,  a  stroke  of  color  may  very  often  be  made 
the  means  of  compelling  attention.1  By  way  of 
illustration: 

1.  There  is  an  appropriateness  in  the  use  of  certain 
colors  for  specific  illustrations.     For  instance,   the 
month's  calendar  may  be  drawn  on  the  board,  with 
spaces  reserved  for  a  daily  entry  as  to  the  weather. 
It  is  appropriate  that  sunshine  should  be  expressed 
by  a  yellow  sun,  and  rain  by  a  colored,  rather  than  a 
white,  umbrella. 

2.  Emphasis  that  is  made  in  speech  by  accent  may 
be  made  in  board  writing  by  colored  words  or  under- 
lining.   For  instance, 

Washington  was  inaugurated  first  President 

of  the  United  States  in  1789, 
makes  a  more  successful  appeal  than 

Washington  was  inaugurated  first  President 
of  the  United  States  in  1789, 

and  separate  is  better  than  separate. 

1  Yellow,  orange,  pink,  light  green,  light  blue  are  most  satis- 
factory; dark  tones  of  red,  green,  blue,  etc.,  are  less  so. 

171 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

3.  The  distinction  between  a  law  and  its  application 
may  profitably  be  made  by  variety  of  color. 


may  represent  the  formula,  and  the  application  is 
then  made  directly,  thus: 


"a 


4.  Similarly  as  to  the  distinction  between  original 
work  and  corrections,  as  in  composition  or  any  subject 
where  there  can  be  a  variety  of  opinion  as  to  correct 
form.     John  may  write  a  sentence  as  he  thinks  it 
should   be.    James   makes   his   alterations   in   red. 
Harry  follows  and  amends  in  green,  and  so  on,  and 
confusion  as  to  authorship  is  avoided. 

5.  Similarly  as  to  the  distinction  between  work  and 
its  illustration.    This  is  frequently  necessary  in  mathe- 
matical operations.    For  example,   when  first-year 

172 


THE  USE  OF  THE  BLACKBOARD 

pupils  are  learning  the  simplest  combinations,  the 
child  writes, 

I      -f-      /4     -      5" 


He  is  having  some  difficulty  with  both  the  content 
and  the  form.  In  aiding  him  as  to  content,  the 
teacher  must  be  careful  not  to  puzzle  him  as  to  form. 
She  may  aim  to  help  him  by  writing  above  the  figures, 
thus  : 

o         o&oo          oc?ooc> 

I-  4.  •  «4"-«    £• 

Now  she  may  call  these  circles  oranges,  and  she  may 
easily  think  of  them  as  oranges;  yet  there  is  danger 
that  the  child  will  see  in  them  something  too  much 
like  the  zeros  to  which  he  is  also  being  introduced. 
The  use  of  orange-colored  chalk  for  the  oranges  elimi- 
nates this  danger.  The  same  criticism  would  not 
apply  to  the  sketching  in  white  of  characteristic  forms 
which  could  not  be  confused  with  numbers,  as 
C5  G5  C5>  O  for  apples,  or  /^/7/7/7  for  flags, 
or  gr  e7^<Zf  &~  gr  for  cherries,  or  f-j  fa  (f  fj 
for  chairs,  etc.,  and  yet  even  these  might  profitably 
be  done  in  appropriate  color  —  it  would  certainly  take 
no  longer  to  do  so,  and  there  are  then  distinct  im- 
pressions made  by  the  numerical  symbols  and  by  the 
illustrative  pictures. 

173 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


Another  instance: 

If  one  bushel  of  potatoes  costs  80  cents  what  will 
3  pecks  cost? 

Here  is  the  bushel  bag  of  potatoes 


and  here  is  the  thought  of  the  problem  applied  to  this 
bag  of  potatoes. 


> 


THE  USE  OF  THE  BLACKBOARD 


6.  Identities  and  relationships  are  well  brought  out 
by  the  use  of  color.  For  example,  in  diagramming  in 
grammar,  to  locate  modifiers,  etc.  : 


and  to  follow  the  effect  of  the  changing  of  the  voice 
of  a  verb  from  active  to  passive. 


^ 

ULam, 


175 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

7.  Unseen  lines  in  an  illustration  may  best  be  indi- 
cated in  color.     For  instance,  this  figure 


may  represent  a  rectangular  prism  in  either  of  two 
positions,  but  the  ambiguity  is  eliminated  thus: 


The  illustrations  which  have  been  given  are  neces- 
sarily but  few,  and  are  merely  suggestive,  but  they 
hint  at  the  constant  employment  which  may  be  made 
of  the  simple  expedient  of  color.  Not  alone  the  pen 
is  mighty;  a  fragment  of  chalk  in  the  hand  of  a  skillful 
teacher  may  illumine  the  mind  of  the  pupil  as  can 
nothing  else. 


176 


VIII 
THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM 

EVERY  alert  teacher  appreciates  the  value  of  ob- 
jective illustration  as  a  factor  in  teaching  method,  and 
in  consequence  will  gradually  accumulate  such  mate- 
rial as  experience  proves  appropriate  to  the  work  at 
hand.1  The  principle  of  cooperation  yields  as  marked 
a  beneficial  return  when  applied  to  the  establishment 
of  this  sort  of  equipment  as  it  does  in  any  other  de- 
partment of  school  management. 

1  "  In  France,  one  finds  a  musee  scolaire,  or  school  museum, 
in  almost  every  school,  and  this  is  often  of  great  assistance  in 
the  object  lessons.  The  teacher  encourages  the  children  to  bring 
here  things  that  have  any  unusual  interest,  and  they  often  take 
great  pride  in  their  botanical  or  natural-history  collection,  neces- 
sarily small,  but  none  the  less  valuable  from  an  educational 
point  of  view." 

—Frederic  Ernest  Farrington:  "The  Public  Primary  School 
System  of  France,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
1906,  p.  88. 

I  am  glad  to  acknowledge  the  source  of  my  own  inspiration 
along  this  line,  namely,  the  Sixth  Burgher  School,  in  Leipzig, 
which  Dr.  Klemm,  in  his  "European  Schools"  (p.  282),  calls 
"the  best  equipped  in  the  world." 
12*  177 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

When  a  school  museum  is  established  upon  this 
basis  it  is  clear  that  its  aim  should  be  to  provide  such 
material  as  will  be  of  practical  use  to  the  teachers  in 
their  daily  work.  The  display  idea  should  be  elimi- 
nated; the  museum  should  be  regarded  as  a  depository 
of  material  rather  than  a  collection  for  exhibit.  Other- 
wise the  museum  is  likely  to  degenerate  into  a  mere 
showroom,  quite  meaningless  and  of  little  practical 
value. 

My  own  experiment  with  the  school  museum  has 
convinced  me  that  the  time  devoted  to  it  has  been 
eminently  worth  while.  I  began  ten  years  since  by 
donating  a  number  of  specimens  of  my  own  gathering. 
The  collection  aggregated  about  six  shelffuls  in  an 
ordinary  cabinet  in  the  principal's  office.  To-day  the 
museum  occupies  one  hundred  thirty  shelves  in  a  room 
seventeen  by  twenty-five  feet  devoted  exclusively  to 
this  purpose.  The  growth  has  been  gradual  and  un- 
forced. The  teachers  of  the  school  have  supported  a 
museum  fund  by  contributing  ten  cents  each  per 
month.  This  contribution  represents  less  than  the 
amount  which  each  teacher  would  probably  expend 
on  illustrative  material  if  there  were  no  cooperative 
scheme.  This  fund  is  drawn  upon  to  meet  all  expenses 
of  the  museum,  which  are  of  three  kinds:  cataloguing, 
preparing  specimens,  and  purchasing  material. 

Our  catalogue,  of  which  four  editions,  with  inter- 
178 


THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM 

mediate  supplements,  have  been  issued  in  ten  years, 
consists  in  the  present  edition  of  twenty-four  pages, 
and  costs  us  about  twenty  dollars  for  three  hundred 
copies.  We  are  also  under  expense  for  mailing  a  small 
number  of  catalogues  to  school  authorities  and  others 
interested  in  the  work  and  to  people  whose  interest 
might  result  in  their  donating  specimens.  These  cat- 
alogues are  accompanied  by  an  explanatory  statement 
as  follows: 

This  little  catalogue  is  sent  in  the  hope  that  it  may 
interest  you  in  our  School  Museum.  We  desire  to  em- 
phasize the  fact  that  the  teachers  make  daily  use  of  the 
collections,  reenforcing,  by  illustration,  their  work  in 
nature,  reading,  geography,  history,  etc.  Many  de- 
partments are  as  yet  unrepresented.  Material  of  any 
kind  would  be  acceptable — perhaps  you  will  help  us. 

The  preparation  of  specimens  takes  various  forms. 
We  receive  birds  and  other  small  animals  which  have 
just  been  killed,  and  these  we  send  to  the  taxidermist 
for  mounting.  We  receive  second-hand  specimens 
which  require  a  little  repairing.  Our  specimens  in  al- 
cohol and  in  camphor  require  a  renewal  of  the  pre- 
servative periodically.  A  random  selection  from  our 
records  shows  that  we  have  paid  the  following  prices 
for  mounting:  25  cents  for  a  mouse;  50  cents  each  for 
a  woodlark,  a  canary,  a  parrot,  a  humming  bird;  75 
cents  each  for  a  robin,  a  kingfisher,  a  bluebird;  $1.25 

179 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

each  for  a  squirrel  and  a  woodpecker;  $1.50  for  a  frog; 
$3  for  an  owl;  $5  fora  hawk.  Material  purchased 
consists  of  mounted  specimens,  pictures,  models,  etc., 
and  raw  material  for  the  construction  of  models.  For 
example,  a  gallon  box,  made  of  zinc,  three  by  seven 
by  eleven  inches,  cost  75  cents;  a  hen,  mounted,  $5; 
a  piece  of  kangaroo  skin,  25  cents;  bottles  for  speci- 
mens average  20  cents  per  dozen;  silk  flags  of  various 
nations,  eight  by  twelve  inches,  cost  $2.80  per  dozen. 
A  few  other  items  in  our  collection  are  here  noted  as 
typical  of  what  it  is  aimed  to  provide.  For  elemen- 
tary school  purposes,  classification  of  nature  specimens 
must  not  be  carried  out  to  any  extended  detail.  The 
aim  must  be  the  modest  one  of  teaching  the  pupil  to 
distinguish,  for  instance,  between  a  sparrow  and  a 
swallow,  a  butterfly  and  a  moth,  an  elm  and  a  pine; 
energy  must  not  be  wasted  in  illustrating  such  dis- 
tinctions as  papilio  zolicaon  and  papilio  daunus. 
Among  our  mounted  specimens  are :  bat,  flying  squir- 
rel, ducks,  hen,  orioles,  fox.  There  are  also  birds'  nests 
and  birds'  eggs.  Where  it  has  been  impossible  to  pro- 
cure specimens  of  animals,  pictures,  many  in  color,  are 
provided.  Among  the  objects  preserved  in  alcohol  we 
have  snakes,  fishes,  etc.,  and  a  series  of  "from  tadpole 
to  frog."  A  few  skins  or  pieces  of  leather — snakes, 
bear,  elephant — and  a  few  skeletons — horse's  skull, 
teeth,  etc. — are  included.  Sea  products  are  well  rep- 

180 


THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM 

resented  in  shells,  corals,  urchins,  starfish,  and  the 
like;  agricultural  products  by  a  particularly  fine  series 
of  grains  in  the  seed — about  one  hundred  varieties; 
and  mineral  products  by  several  hundred  specimens. 
Trees  are  represented  by  pictures,  by  cross-sections  of 
trunk  and  branches,  by  bark,  and  by  lumber  in  va- 
rious degrees  of  finish.  Insects  are  mounted  each  in  a 
separate  box.  Series  illustrating  the  evolution  of  in- 
dustrial and  manufactured  products  are  particularly 
valuable.  We  have  coal  in  its  various  commercial 
sizes,  silk  from  the  cocoon  to  the  ribbon,  cotton  from 
the  seed  to  the  spool,  etc.  There  is  a  small  ethno- 
graphic section  of  miscellaneous  specimens  such  as 
tools  and  coins. 

In  addition  to  purchase,  material  comes  to  us  in 
many  ways.  The  public  museum  has  given  us  sev- 
eral of  its  duplicate  specimens  and  material  which, 
though  not  quite  up  to  their  standard,  is  yet  suffi- 
ciently good  for  our  purpose.  Teachers,  pupils,  and 
others  make  frequent  contributions.  As  one  illustra- 
tion, a  stranger,  passing  the  school  building  one  holi- 
day, got  into  conversation  with  the  janitor,  by  virtue 
of  which  he  was  invited  to  visit  our  museum  room. 
He  accepted  the  invitation,  and  soon  after  sent  us  our 
mounted  fox.  We  find  it  advisable  to  make  it  a  rule 
not  to  accept  specimens  as  loans;  they  must  be  given 
to  us  outright  or  not  at  all.  This  is  chiefly  desirable 

181 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

because  of  the  responsibility  which  would  accrue  for 
the  care  of  loaned  articles. 

The  arrangement  of  material  is  on  shelves  which  are 
numbered  on  a  flexible  basis: 

1-120  Animal 

121-240  Vegetable 

241-300  Mineral 

301-350  Miscellaneous 

Thus  if  expansion  makes  it  necessary,  the  number  of 
a  shelf  may  be  changed,  but  the  specimen  follows  the 
number.  The  catalogue  shows  names  of  specimens 
with  the  shelf  number  at  the  end  of  the  line.  A  sec- 
tion reads: 

Azurite 255 

Barley,  flour,  grits 127 

Barnacles 61 

Bartholdi  statue,  model  of 303 

Basswood  (T  16)  167 161 

Bat,  m 91 

Beans,  various  kinds  of 129 

Bear  (A  15)  105,  (A  47,  49) 107 

Bear  hide,  piece  of 99 

Beaver,  stick  gnawed  by 91 

Beech  (T  1)  167 159 

Bell,  City  Hall,  portion  of 319 

Bees,  m 39 

Beetles,  m 35 

Beet  sugar 219 

182 


THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM 

Abbreviations  used  are :  a  =  preserved  in  alcohol ;  m  = 
mounted;  A  =  series  of  pictures  of  animals;  B  =  of 
birds;  T  =  of  trees;  F  =  of  flowers. 

Each  teacher  is  provided  with  a  catalogue  and  is 
expected  to  make  constant  use  of  the  museum  for 
illustrating  his  work,  not  only  in  nature  study,  but 
also  in  reading,  history,  geography — in  fact,  in  all 
subjects  which  permit  of  objective  illustration. 

It  is  necessary  that  some  one  be  placed  in  position 
of  responsible  supervision  of  the  museum.  A  teacher 
sufficiently  interested  to  undertake  the  work  can 
usually  be  found  and  should  then  be  excused  from 
other  assignments  of  work  outside  the  classroom. 
The  duties  of  the  curator  are  to  act  as  treasurer  of 
the  museum  fund,  to  accept  and  prepare  specimens, 
and  to  care  for  the  museum  room.  Pupils  are  always 
available  who  will  enjoy  helping  the  curator.  Teach- 
ers may  be  directed  either  "  When  returning  specimens 
be  sure  to  place  them  on  the  proper  shelf — if  in  doubt 
look  up  the  shelf  number  in  the  catalogue"  or  ".  .  . 
place  them  upon  the  table  and  do  not  replace  them 
in  their  shelf  positions."  If  the  latter  rule  is  made, 
some  one  must  be  assigned  to  replace  the  returned 
specimens  daily. 

We  have  found  it  profitable  to  have  boxes  con- 
structed, approximately  a  foot  in  each  dimension,  with 
the  front  and  sides  of  glass.  These  are  located  on 

183 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

the  walls  at  convenient  places  in  the  corridors  and  a 
specimen  from  the  museum  is  placed  in  each.  These 
specimens  are  changed  from  time  to  time,  and  if  they 
are  appropriate  to  the  season,  so  much  the  better. 
For  instance,  a  robin  may  be  accompanied  by  a  plac- 
ard: "  Robins  were  seen  in  the  park  yesterday,  March 
18th.  Have  you  seen  any  this  year?" 

Whether  pupils  should  be  permitted  to  visit  the 
museum  or  not  is  an  open  question.  As  a  reward,  or 
from  some  other  motive,  a  class  with  its  teacher  might 
very  occasionally  be  given  a  period  devoted  to  in- 
spection of  specimens  in  their  cases.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  pupils  are  debarred  from  the  room  and 
the  museum  is  regarded  as  a  storehouse  and  not  as 
an  exhibit,  their  interest  in  specimens  when  they  are 
used  in  the  classroom  in  the  course  of  the  regular  work 
is  apt  to  be  heightened. 


IX 

THE  ALUMNI 

THE  full  value  of  alumni  organization  is  universally 
acknowledged  and  appreciated  in  respect  to  any  edu- 
cational institution  of  collegiate  or  university  rank. 
But  it  is  sometimes  overlooked  that  even  to  the  public 
elementary  school,  alumni  interest  is  equally  valuable 
though  its  expression  may  take  somewhat  different 
direction.  Thus,  aside  from  an  occasional  contribu- 
tion of  pictures  or  other  supplementary  equipment, 
the  financial  support  which  is  directly  rendered  with 
telling  effect  by  the  alumni  of  many  private  higher 
institutions,  is  not  a  practicable  consideration  in  the 
immediate  relation  of  the  public-school  graduates  to 
their  alma  mater. 

There  is  for  the  public  school,  however,  an  indirect 
alumni  influence  bearing  upon  financial  support,  that 
merits  attention.  Any  municipal  system  of  schools  is 
dependent  upon  the  taxpayers  for  maintenance,  and 
this  support  in  turn  depends  upon  the  degree  of  fa- 
vorable estimation  to  which  the  schools  are  regarded 
by  the  great  citizen  body.  If  the  graduates  from  the 
13  185 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

public  schools  of  any  city  are  imbued  with  a  spirit  of 
loyalty  and  devotion,  each  to  his  own  alma  mater, 
their  collective  support  of  the  entire  system  when  they 
in  turn  become  taxpayers  and  voters,  will  be  whole- 
hearted and  correspondingly  effective,  and  will  react 
favorably  upon  the  succeeding  generation  of  pupils. 
Contrariwise,  the  boys  who  sustain  for  their  individ- 
ual schools  a  sentiment  of  indifference  or  distaste  are 
likely  to  become  the  men  whose  regard  for  the  school 
system  is  flaccid  or  perhaps  positively  inimical.  Upon 
this  broad  consideration  it  is  clear  that  there  is  wis- 
dom in  developing  an  alumni  spirit  in  and  for  a 
school. 

There  is  a  more  specific  value  in  alumni  support. 
That  school  which  establishes  favorable  traditions  has 
an  asset  of  immeasurable  worth.  Any  school  acquires 
a  tradition  of  some  sort — it  cannot  hope  to  escape — 
and  hence  it  behooves  the  responsible  head  of  the 
school  to  assure  to  it  the  best  quality  of  traditional 
spirit  and  to  protect  it  against  the  baneful  effects  of 
an  unfavorable  tradition.  If  the  pupils  of  a  school  are 
permitted  to  feel  that  once  they  are  graduated  they 
are  cast  adrift  and  that  the  interest  of  the  school  in 
them  automatically  ceases,  their  own  interest  in  the 
school  is  unlikely  to  endure.  On  the  other  hand,  as- 
suming that  the  school  has  exercised  an  inspiring  in- 
fluence upon  its  pupils,  that  influence  and  its  reaction 

186 


THE  ALUMNI 

for  good  upon  the  school  may  readily  be  extended  into 
the  postgraduate  years. 

As  a  single  concrete  example,  consider  the  princi- 
pal's handling  of  discipline  cases.  Henry  Smith,  let 
us  say,  is  reported  to  him  by  his  teacher  for  misbe- 
havior. Discussing  the  matter  with  the  boy,  he  says: 
"  George  Smith  is  your  brother,  is  he  not?  And  he  was 
graduated  from  this  school.  What  would  they  think 
of  this  sort  of  conduct  at  home?"  However  effective 
may  be  his  respect  for  his  father  and  mother,  Henry 
has  a  wholesome  regard  for  his  older  brother's  good 
opinion.  If  George  is  an  inspired  alumnus  of  the  school 
— even  though  in  his  time  he  may  have  had  his  own 
disciplinary  troubles — Henry  immediately  recognizes 
that  he  has  done  something  which  George  will  not 
countenance.  George,  as  Henry  knows,  is  with  the 
school,  and  that  definite  and  positive  support  may  be 
made  a  controlling  factor  in  the  disposition  of  the  case. 
By  contrast,  if  George  is  a  negative  alumnus  of  the 
school,  Henry  may  well  suspect  that  he  is  indifferent 
to  his  brother's  shortcomings — might  indeed  applaud 
his  misdemeanors — and  the  case  is  correspondingly 
more  difficult  to  settle. 

In  turn,  how  far  may  school  interest  extend  to  the 
alumni?  Ought  graduation  to  close  the  personal  ac- 
count of  the  pupils  with  the  school?  I  do  not  here  dis- 
cuss the  place  of  the  alumni  association  and  kindred 

187 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

forms  for  the  promotion  of  alumni  interest,  but  re- 
strict myself  to  the  consideration  of  the  more  personal 
duty  of  the  principal  of  the  school.  Should  not  the 
interest  of  the  school  extend  to  the  individual  welfare 
of  its  alumni  and  exert  an  inspiring  influence  in  their 
lives?  In  the  typical  city  school,  with  its  graduates 
numbering  hundreds,  the  problem  of  thus  reaching  the 
individual  graduate  assumes  serious  proportions  and 
if  a  principal  is  to  extend  his  influence  in  this  direction 
he  must  set  about  it  deliberately  and  work  system- 
atically. His  hit-or-miss  efforts  will  undoubtedly 
yield  some  return,  but  one  meager  in  comparison  with 
that  resulting  from  an  expenditure  of  an  equivalent 
amount  of  time  and  energy  in  pursuance  of  a  carefully 
formulated  plan. 

My  own  effort  to  solve  this  problem,  though  limited 
in  its  results  when  compared  with  ideal  aims,  has  yield- 
ed much  in  both  sentimental  return  and  practical  use- 
fulness. I  believe  that  it  is  better  that  my  interest  in 
a  graduate's  welfare  should  find  definite  expression 
periodically  though  occasionally,  than  at  such  random 
that  he  may  or  may  not  receive  my  attention  according 
to  quite  adventitious  circumstances.  Hence  it  is  that 
each  of  my  alumni  (over  a  thousand  in  number)  re- 
ceives from  me  a  personal  letter  or  greeting  on  each 
of  four  consecutive  birthdays,  beginning  with  the 
first  after  his  graduation. 

188 


THE  ALUMNI 

On  the  first  occasion  I  write  him  a  note  more  or  less 
in  accordance  with  the  following  form: 

DEAR  JOHN: 

If  I  am  not  mistaken,  to-day  is  your  birthday,  and 
I  congratulate  you  upon  the  occasion.  I  hope  you 
still  think  of  " Eighty-Five"  and  are  bringing  credit 
to  the  school  in  your  present  career.  I  should  be  very 
glad  to  receive  a  letter  from  you  telling  me  what  you 
are  doing,  how  you  are  getting  on,  and  your  plans  for 
the  future. 

Cordially  yours, 
(Signed).    ' 

John  receives  this  by  mail  and  recognizes  it  as  a 
birthday  present  of  the  kind  for  which  we  all  have  a 
growing  regard  as  we  learn  to  value  our  gifts  by  other 
than  a  dollars-and-cents  measure.  The  expression  of 
my  personal  and  official  interest  is  to  him  unexpected 
and  pleasing.  But  better  than  this,  it  is  frequently 
effective  as  a  stimulus  to  profitable  introspection.  It 
may  be  that  John  has  settled  into  a  life  of  more  or 
less  perfunctory  service  in  a  shop  or  office  and  his 
interest  in  his  work  is  at  a  standstill.  The  fact  that 
I  have  an  interest  in  that  work  which  I  am  willing  to 
turn  out  of  my  appointed  way  to  express,  is  quite  apt 
to  heighten  his  own  respect  not  only  for  his  work  but 
for  himself.  And  then  that  word  plans  usually  holds 
him.  Either  he  is  dreaming  dreams  and  is  grateful 

189 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

for  the  opportunity  to  interpret  them  to  a  sympa- 
thetic listener,  or  perhaps  he  may  not  have  realized 
that  a  fifteen-year-old  boy  may  treasure  plans  among 
his  heart's  possessions. 

The  following  excerpts  from  replies  which  I  have 
received  serve  as  types  of  how  "John"  views  my 
interest  in  him — and  not  neglecting  the  girls,  for  they 
are  not  forgotten.1  Many  of  these  letters  are  so  con- 
fidential, and  they  all  mean  so  much  to  me  personally 
that  I  should  hesitate  to  publish  them,  even  incog- 
nito, were  it  not  that  I  am  insistent  upon  proving  my 
thesis  that  the  time  spent  upon  this  correspondence  is 
very  much  worth  while : 

"  Your  very  kind  note,  extending  birthday  greet- 
ings, was  a  great  pleasure  to  me,  as  well  as  to  my 
parents." 

"  Your  kind  letter  was  received  yesterday  and  I 
was  very  much  pleased  to  hear  from  you.  Accept  my 
sincerest  thanks  for  your  congratulations.  Am  also 
pleased  to  know  that  I  am  still  remembered  in 
'Eighty-Five'  and  very  often  think  of  it.  ..." 

"  Now,  you  really  cannot  imagine  how  very  much 
pleased  I  was  to  find  that  you  remembered  me  and 

1  All  the  excerpts  here  given  are  verbatim  quotations  from 
actual  letters  and,  though  small  in  number,  have  been  selected 
with  the  view  of  showing  types  by  which  the  general  tenor  of  the 
responses  may  be  estimated. 

190 


THE  ALUMNI 

my  birthday,  and  I  hope  I'll  prove  worthy  of  your 
remembrance." 

"  I  hardly  think  I  can  forget  the  good  times  I  have 
had  in  dear  old  'Eighty-Five/  or  the  kind  instruc- 
tions from  those  in  it.  I  went  to  business  directly 
after  graduating  ....  I  am  at  present  in  the  em- 
ploy of ,  from  which  I  am  obtaining  plenty  of 

business  experience." 

"  I  think  very  often  of  '  Eighty-Five '  and  would  not 
mind  having  my  school  days  over  again.  ...  I 

work  in  the  ribbon  department  of .    Like  many 

other  boys,  I  find  that  promotion  does  not  come  as  I 
would  like,  but  by  a  little  grit  I  hope  to  get  advanced 
and  eventually  become  a  salesman." 

"  I  often  think  of  the  school  where  I  received  the 
best  part  of  my  education.  ...  I  am  at  present 
employed  in  a  good  mercantile  house.  .  .  .  My  prog- 
ress has  been  quite  good  for  the  time  I  have  been  in 
the  concern,  and,  picking  up  points  now  and  then  as 
I  have  been  doing,  I  think  I  shall  some  day  become 
a  traveling  salesman,  which  is  my  only  plan  at 
present." 

"  I  secured  the  position  in  ~.  Next  year  I  in- 
tend to  go  to at  night.  My  intentions  are  to  be 

a  mechanical  and  electrical  engineer.  .  .  .  Thanking 
you  for  your  most  timely  remembrance." 

191 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

On  the  next  birthday,  I  jot  down  and  send  a  mere 
memorandum,  such  as: 

December  8,  1892 
June,  1907 

December  8,  1908 

Congratulations! 
(Signed) 

The  first  date  is  that  of  John's  birth;  the  second,  of 
his  graduation;  and  the  third,  the  current  date. 
This  note  serves  as  a  birthday  greeting  and  as  a  re- 
minder of  the  first,  and  usually  elicits  a  reply.  Some 
of  these  replies  have  been: 

"  Since  your  last  letter  I  have  graduated  from  the 

High   School,  and  am  now   in   the Bank, 

where  I  am  starting  at  the  bottom  of  the  ladder  to 
learn  the  banking  business  thoroughly.  I  shall  be 
pleased  to  write  you  how  I  am  progressing  in  my 
work." 

"  After  receiving  your  letter  on  my  previous  birth- 
day, I  hardly  expected  to  be  remembered  this  year, 
and  it  was  a  very  agreeable  surprise,  I  assure  you,  to 
receive  your  kind  remembrance." 

"  I  have  received  your  congratulations  and  thank 
you  heartily  for  the  same.  School  life  has  not  ended 

as  yet,  for  I  am  now  studying  at ,  arid  I  hope  to 

193 


THE  ALUMNI 

be  an  illustrator  some  day.  My  health  has  not  failed, 
as  I  now  weigh  one  hundred  and  forty-five  pounds, 
this  being  forty  pounds  more  than  when  I  graduated." 

"  Thank  you  very  much  for  that  kind  reminder  of 
my  debt  to  <  Eighty-Five.'  " 

"  I  assure  you  I  have  not  forgotten  it  by  any 
means,  yet  I  am  glad  to  have  it  recalled  so  vividly  to 
my  mind." 

On  the  third  occasion  I  send  a  copy  of  the  school 
song  with  my  autograph  and  the  date,  and  receive 
such  responses  as: 

"  I  thank  you  very  much  for  the  little  card  you  sent 
me  as  it  made  me  wish  that  I  were  back  in  school 
again  and  also  glad  that  after  being  out  of  school  for 
three  years  I  am  not  forgotten.  Those  words  '  When 
school  is  o'er  may  we  be  true  yet  more  and  more/ 
made  me  feel  as  though  I  could  do  anything  for  the 
school. 

".  .  .  So  I  made  up  my  mind  right  there  and  then 
that  I  was  going  to  do  something  this  year;  that  when 
I  give  an  account  of  my  doings  to  you  on  my  next 
birthday  there  will  be  at  least  one  thing  among  them 
that  you  will  approve." 

On  the  fourth  I  write  after  this  fashion: 

Another  birthday  is  here,  and  once  again  I  send  you 
my  sincere  congratulations.  This  time  I  have  to  con- 
fess that  I  am  like  "the  old  woman  who  lived  in  the 

193 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

shoe."  I  find  that  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  keep  up 
writing  to  all  my  children,  and  so  I  am  asking  you  to 
accept  with  this  letter  my  best  wishes  for  all  your 
birthdays  to  come.  Next  year,  and  every  other  year, 
too,  when  your  birthday  arrives,  please  write  me  a 
letter  telling  of  your  progress  during  the  year,  remem- 
bering that  I  have  you  on  my  mind  and  am  always 
interested  in  your  welfare. 

Cordially  yours, 

(Signed) 

This  usually  receives  attention  even  if  there  has  been 
a  lapse  in  replying  to  the  previous  notes.  I  have  had 
such  responses  as: 

"  It  is  indeed  kind  of  you  to  think  of  me  on  my  eight- 
eenth birthday,  and  I  want  you  to  accept  my  thanks. 
I  should  say  you  were  like  the  woman  who  lived  in  a 
shoe  and  I  don't  see  how  you  could  think  of  us  as  often 
as  you  did,1  but  never  mind,  we  won't  forget  you  nor 
'85,  at  least  I  won't  as  long  as  I  live." 

" .  .  .it  must  keep  you  very  busy  remembering 
them  all.  But  I  am  afraid  I  don't  like  the  idea  of  not 
hearing  from  you  any  more.  I  have  appreciated  your 
letters  so  much  and  wish  you  would  find  time  to  write 
to  me  again." 

"  Your  very  kind  and  encouraging  letter  of  the  third 
instant  received  and  I  must  thank  you  for  your  wishes 

1  I  have  never  thought  it  necessary  to  explain  to  this  graduate, 
nor  to  others,  my  "system,"  which  makes  the  result  possible. 

194 


THE  ALUMNI 

for  my  welfare.  Words  cannot  express  my  gratitude 
for  this  letter  and  for  the  many  others  of  the  past.  I 
will  certainly  accede  to  your  wishes  and  advise  you 
from  tine  to  time  of  my  advancement." 

"  I  thank  you  very  much  for  your  kind  letter.  I  recog- 
nized the  writing  immediately  and  even  before  open- 
ing the  letter,  I  wondered  how  many  children  you  had 
graduated.  So  I  was  not  surprised  to  read  that  they 
were  getting  too  numerous.  .  .  ." 

"  Of  course  I  can  appreciate  how  utterly  impossible  a 
task  it  would  be  to  continue  the  custom,  since  year  by 
year  our  ranks  grow  in  numbers;  yet,  although  I  shall 
have  to  forego  this  pleasure  in  the  future,  I  shall  deem 
it  a  privilege,  as  you  suggest,  to  write  to  you,  confident 
that  my  woes  or  joys,  failures  or  success,  shall  be  heard 
by  a  sympathetic  ear  and  receive  such  praise  or  counsel 
as  they  merit." 

"  You  seem  to  be  in  quite  a  predicament,  but  I  hope 
you  will  not  find  it  necessary  to  treat  your  children  as 
that  same  '  old  woman '  did .... 

"  I  am  sure  that  I  owe  a  great  deal  to  '85  and  love  it 
more  each  year  as  I  get  older  and  realize  a  little  more 
of  what  it  did  for  me.  I  hope  always  to  do  nothing  of 
which  it  might  be  ashamed .  .  .  ." 

"The  twentieth  anniversary  of  my  birthday  is  before 
me  and  it  is  a  pleasure  for  me  to  write  this  annual  let- 
ter to  you." 

195 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

"  Pursuant  to  your  request  of  last  year,  that  when  my 
birthday  rolls  around  I  should  write  you,  I  take  great 
pleasure  in  doing  so. 

"  I  missed  your  letter  this  year  very  much;  but  I 
must  also  say  that  it  surprised  me  that  you  could  keep 
up  your  custom  for  as  long  a  time  as  you  did.  .  .  . " 

I  usually  find  time  to  send  a  brief  acknowledgment 
on  a  postal  card  of  all  letters  received  after  I  have 
ceased  to  take  the  initiative. 

The  mechanics  through  which  I  carry  out  this  plan 
is  as  follows.  I  use  an  ordinary  report  book  well  bound 
and  containing  some  three  hundred  pages,  in  which  I 
make  three  records.  The  first  fifty  pages  are  devoted 
to  a  list  of  the  graduates  by  classes,  a  page  or  two  to 
each  class.  Next  follows  a  chronological  record,  one 
page  to  each  two  days  of  the  year,  thus: 

APRIL 

(05V06, 07,  08V) 

27  89  John  Peterson          Jan.  '04  80  Cooper 

(07,vt»,V 

91  Fannie  Hempstead  June  '05  122  Covert 

(03,v/04,v/05,V06,V)  527  Hancock 

28  87  Paul  Hester  Feb.  '02  661  Buohwiok 

(03,\/04,\/05  06ret) 
88  Richard  Smith          June  '04  1680  Evergreen 

B.  Geo.  (08 

91  Harriet  Wilmer        Jan.  '07  87  Central 
196 


THE  ALUMNI 

The  explanation  of  these  entries  is:  John  Peterson 
was  born  April  27, 1889,  was  graduated  January,  1904, 
and  lives  at  80  Cooper  Street.  I  wrote  him  on  April 
27,  in  1905, 1906,  1907,  and  1908,  and  received  replies 
from  him  in  1905  and  1908.  Similarly  for  the  other 
names.  In  the  case  of  Paul  Hester,  in  one  of  his  re- 
plies he  has  informed  me  of  his  change  of  residence  to 
527  Hancock  Street.  Richard  Smith  replied  in  1903 
and  1904,  but  not  in  1905,  and  my  1906  letter  was  re- 
turned to  me  by  the  post-office  authorities  as  "Not 
Found."  Harriet  Wilmer  has  a  brother  George,  who 
was  graduated  before  she  was,  which  I  must  remember 
when  I  write  her  in  order  that  my  letter  will  vary 
from  that  which  I  sent  her  brother.  I  also  note 
cases  of  death  and  marriage,  with  dates. 

The  last  fifty  pages  are  given  to  an  alphabetical 

list,  thus: 

A 


Aa-Ag 


Ah-An 


Ackerman       Peter       Aug.  17 
Abbey  George     Sep.  26 

Stone  Susan      Mar.  18 


Anderson      Henry     Feb.    8 
Andrews       Laura      Jan.  26 


The  dates  given  are  the  birthdays,  and  so  give  a 
reference   directly   to   the   previous   record.     Susan 
Abbott  married,  and  her  married  name  is  Stone; 
she  will  also  appear  in  this  record  under  that  name. 
It  may  be  that  a  card-catalogue  record  would  be 
197 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

even  more  convenient,  though  the  book  scheme  in 
use  seems  to  meet  the  requirements  quite  satis- 
factorily. 

I  keep  letters  written  up  sufficiently  in  advance 
so  that  I  am  free  to  neglect  this  particular  business 
on  any  day  when  other  matters  would  crowd  it  out. 
On  my  desk  memorandum  are  noted  the  names  of 
those  to  whom  letters  are  to  be  sent  each  day,  so  that 
the  only  attention  required  is  to  see  that  the  letters 
are  mailed  on  the  proper  day. 

Replies  received  are  indorsed  at  the  top  with  send- 
er's name  and  birthday  and  year,  and  filed  according 
to  date.  They  are  thus  available,  chronologically,  as 
to  any  particular  pupil,  by  means  of  reference  to  the 
second  record. 

Perhaps  the  thought  that  is  most  likely  to  occur 
regarding  the  scheme  I  have  here  described  is  that 
it  must  take  too  large  an  expenditure  of  time.  I  am 
safe  in  saying,  however,  that  an  average  of  ten 
minutes  a  day  more  than  covers  the  attention  which 
it  demands,  and  I  am  convinced  that  there  are  few 
more  profitable  ten-minute  periods  in  my  school  day. 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

THERE  are  several  reasons  why  special  consideration 
of  adolescent  girls  at  their  critical  periods  is  com- 
monly neglected  in  the  elementary  schools.  Chief 
among  them  are: 1 

1.  It  is  generally  regarded  as  a  high-school  problem 
only. 

2.  Teachers  are  carelessly  or  ignorantly  indifferent 
to  their  duty  in  this  regard. 

3.  The  attendance   record   is   overemphasized   in 
many  schools  and  school  systems. 

4.  Overconscientiousness  and  fidelity  to  school  re- 
quirements, one  of  the  mental  characteristics  of  ado- 
lescence, leads  many  girls  to  neglect  their  physical 
well-being. 

5.  There  is  a  widespread  conviction  that  the  sub- 
ject is  a  delicate  one  to  discuss,  and  that  consideration 
of  it  would  be  resented  by  the  public  concerned. 

1  In  part  restated  from  "The  Management  of  a  City  School," 
pp.  164,  165. 

199 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

6.  There  is  uncertainty  as  to  how  far  the  school 
should  go  in  recognition  and  solution  of  the  problem. 

As  to  each  of  these  considerations  in  turn,  I  answer 
as  follows: 

1.  Any  investigation  of  the  facts  shows  that  it  is 
not  a  high-school  problem  alone,  but,  to  a  very  impor- 
tant extent,  one  seriously  demanding  the  attention 
of  the  elementary  school. 

2.  The  indifference  of  teachers  is  not  willful  and 
exists  in  consequence  of  ignorance  and  of  loyalty  to 
conventional  school  traditions. 

3.  The  attendance  record  is  one  of  the  conventional 
school  traditions,  blindly  worshiped  as  a  special  fea- 
ture of  the  "  system." 

4.  Girls  may  be  brought  to  see  that  there  is  a  truer 
definition   of   Duty   than    the    nearsighted   one   of 
always  doing  the  present  work  at  whatever  future 
expense. 

5.  The  delicacy  referred  to  is  essentially  a  false 
one,  and  the  public  will  not  resent  a  sane  recognition 
of  the  problem  by  the  school. 

6.  A  few  definite  propositions  as  to  the  limitations 
of  the  school  may  be  established,  and  within  these 
limitations  much  positive  good  may  be  done. 

These  statements  result  from  conservative  generali- 
zation based  upon  a  review  of  five  years'  experience 
in  endeavoring  to  solve  the  general  problem.  I  shall 

200 


THE   CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

first  briefly  recount  that  experience  and  then  return 
to  these  six  statements  to  give  them  more  detailed 
and  convincing  support. 

For  a  number  of  years  my  conviction  had  been 
growing  that  the  school  shirks  its  plain  duty  when  it 
deliberately  refuses  to  consider  the  patent  fact  that 
hundreds  of  adolescent  girls  are  forced  through  the 
curriculum,  in  competition  with  boys,  with  utter  dis- 
regard of  the  consequences  as  related  to  their  physical 
well-being.  Whatever  may  be  said  in  favor  of  a 
curriculum  providing  identical  subject  matter  for  both 
boys  and  girls,  no  argument  is  needed  to  prove  that 
maturing  girls  should  not  be  put  through  the  work  at 
the  same  pace  with  the  boys.  It  is  probably  true  that 
the  preadolescent  girl  can  pursue  her  school  work 
side  by  side  with  the  boy  without  the  slightest  danger, 
subject  only  to  the  ordinary  variations  in  individuals, 
which  are  unrelated  to  difference  of  sex. 

But  to  the  older  girl  is  due  special  consideration; 
first  at  the  time  when  her  maturity  is  establishing 
itself,  and  then  at  her  regular  periods  as  they  recur. 
If  this  consideration  is  extended  her  and  she  is  per- 
mitted at  these  times  to  slacken  her  speed  and  inten- 
sity as  applied  to  the  school  work,  under  ordinary 
circumstances  she  will  more  than  make  up  the  result- 
ant loss  by  the  renewed  vigor  of  her  normal  atten- 
tion to  the  work.  If  this  consideration  is  withheld, 
14  201 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

serious  impairment  of  her  physical  self  may  follow, 
and  in  a  certain  proportion  of  cases  is  sure  to  follow. 
One  may  read  Dr.  Clarke's  "Sex  in  Education"  with 
profit,  without  taking  sides  in  the  discussion  of  co- 
education, which  was  so  violently  precipitated  by  the 
publication  of  the  book.  Dr.  Clarke's  arraignment 
of  the  school  for  its  neglect  of  its  girls  may  or  may 
not  have  been  too  strongly  put,  but  that  there  is 
neglect  is  not  open  to  serious  question. 

But  to  determine  that  the  school  has  a  duty  in  this 
respect  is  far  from  settling  the  question  of  what  this 
duty  consists  and  how  in  actual  practice  it  may  be 
performed.  It  is  clear  that  each  teacher  of  girls  ought 
to  have  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  impor- 
tance of  modifying  the  effort  required  of  a  girl  as 
her  physical  condition  may  demand.  We  may,  with- 
out discussing  the  reasons  therefor,  confess  that 
very  few  teachers  have  such  an  appreciation.  The 
first  duty  then  is  to  inform  teachers  on  the  subject. 
Of  course,  if  a  girl's  mother,  on  her  part,  is  intelli- 
gent and  determined  she  will,  if  necessary,  take  the 
law  into  her  own  hands  and  conserve  her  daughter's 
health  whatever  the  consequences  to  her  school 
record.  But  few  mothers  do  this,  which  is  due  to  a 
lack  of  understanding,  or  of  determination,  or  of 
both. 

Some  mothers  have  a  sympathetic  and  frank  rela- 
202 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT   GIRLS 

tionship  with  their  daughters  which  'is  based  on  in- 
telligence and  in  turn  leads  to  further  effective  under- 
standing. As  to  these,  the  school  has  merely  the  duty 
of  meeting  them  in  a  spirit  of  comprehension  and  co- 
operation. But  many  mothers— it  is  to  be  feared  a 
great  majority  of  them — are  either  diffident  about  thus 
intruding  into  the  daughter's  personal  life  or  are  ig- 
norant of  the  seriousness  of  the  matter.  As  to  these, 
the  school  has  the  further  duty  of  informing  them  and 
of  awakening  them  to  a  sense  of  their  own  obligations. 
There  is  a  work  then  to  be  done  which  shall  bring  the 
mother  and  the  teacher,  who  are  both  concerned  with 
the  welfare  of  the  same  girl,  into  a  position  of  mutual 
understanding  and  intelligent  and  effective  coopera- 
tion. 

To  do  this  was  the  aim  which  I  set  for  myself  as 
principal  of  a  mixed  school  in  which  are  enrolled  over 
one  thousand  girls.  In  furthering  that  aim  I  have  been 
fortunate  in  having  women  assistant  principals  of  ex- 
ceptional ability  and  devotion  to  the  needs  of  the 
school.  Without  such  assistance,  of  course,  a  man 
principal  would  be  estopped  from  carrying  out  any 
systematic  plan  of  campaign  along  this  line,  but  with 
women  of  mature  poise  and  tactful  judgment,  into 
whose  hands  the  details  of  such  a  plan  can  be  placed 
for  execution,  much  good  may  be  accomplished.  In 
five  years  three  different  assistants  successively  have 

203 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

carried  out  my  plan,  with  uniform  tactfulness  and 
with  continued  success. 

The  first  move  was  a  campaign  of  education  among 
the  teachers;  every  girls'  teacher  was  invited  to  read 
Dr.  Clarke's  book — some  other  might  have  served  just 
as  well,  but  that  was  at  hand  and  seemed  at  the  time 
most  valuable.  The  assistant  next  conferred  with  the 
teachers,  explaining  our  plan  of  action  and  particu- 
larly impressing  upon  them  the  thought  that  the  school 
would  hold  them  more  responsible  for  considerate 
treatment  of  their  girls  than  for  a  perfect  attendance 
record.  They  were  assured  that  a  roll  book  which 
showed  periodic  absence  for  some  of  the  girls  would  be 
given  appreciative  recognition  and  that  no  criticism 
would  be  made  of  such  record.  They  were  further  as- 
sured that  they  were  not  expected  by  reason  of  this 
new  attitude  toward  legitimate  absence,  to  overlook 
or  condone  inexcusable  neglect  of  school  work.  In 
other  words,  "discipline"  in  its  best  sense,  was  not  to 
be  impaired — to  the  contrary,  it  would  be  strength- 
ened, for  it  would  be  put  upon  an  intelligent  foot- 
ing. 

In  order  to  reach  the  mothers,  the  assistant  planned 
a  schedule  of  all  but  the  youngest  girls  in  the  higher 
grades  and  began  to  request  the  mothers  of  these  girls, 
a  few  each  day  to  call  at  the  school.  These  individual 
conferences  have  continued  ever  since,  with  practi- 

204 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

cally  no  modification  of  method,  which  consists  in 
making  clear  the  following  points: 

(1)  The  mother  is  assured  that  the  school  wishes  to 
consider  her  daughter's  health  and  cooperate  with 
the  home  in  intelligently  conserving  it.  By  most  par- 
ents, as  indeed  by  many  school  authorities,  the  school 
is  regarded  as  an  institution  concerned  exclusively 
with  the  training  of  the  intellect,  and  it  is  assumed 
that  consideration  of  physical  and  moral  welfare  must 
be  subverted  to  intellectual  progress.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  in  most  cases  to  make  very  explicit  the  as- 
surance that  the  school  regards  both  the  " marks" 
which  the  girl  gets  in  her  studies  and  her  record  of  at- 
tendance of  less  consequence  than  the  fulfillment  of 
her  future  happiness  as  a  woman.  There  must  be  no 
misunderstanding  on  this  point.  It  is  not  that  the 
school  wishes  in  any  way  to  neglect  the  intellectual 
training  of  its  pupils,  but  that,  to  put  it  quite  con- 
cretely, it  is  more  concerned  with  graduating  a  girl  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  with  a  record  of  "  satisfactory " 
in  her  lessons,  knowing  that  her  future  physical  and 
mental  integrity  are  guaranteed,  than  with  graduat- 
ing her  at  the  age  of  fourteen  with  a  record  of  "  supe- 
rior," if  this  is  at  the  expense  of  normal  health  and 
comfort  in  her  adult  life.  If,  as  is  quite  possible  in  ex- 
ceptional cases,  she  can  graduate  at  the  age  of  twelve 
with  a  striking  record,  without  having  augmented  her 

205 


PROBLEMS   OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

chance  of  physical  derangement,  she  must  not  be  hin- 
dered from  doing  so;  but  the  fact  that  an  occasional 
girl  can  do  this,  does  not  warrant  us  in  citing  her  as  a 
model  for  every  other  girl  to  emulate,  regardless  of 
circumstances  and  consequences. 

(2)  The  mother  is  questioned  as  to  her  daughter's 
physical  condition.  This  discovers  the  mother's  own 
attitude  toward  the  subject.  She  may  never  have 
given  it  a  thought l  and  frankly  says  so.  If  this  is  the 
case  she  is  urged  to  consider  its  importance,  to  secure 
her  daughter's  confidence,  and  to  direct  her  daughter 
wisely  and  sympathetically  in  all  matters,  physical 
and  moral,  growing  out  of  her  adolescence.  If  she  has 
already  established  herself  in  this  proper  maternal  re- 
lation, she  is  quite  ready  to  give  the  school  the  neces- 
sary information  which  shall  act  as  the  guide  to  the 
school  attitude  toward  her  daughter.  If  there  has 
been  any  functional  disturbance  which  seems  abnor- 
mal, for  which  medical  advice  has  not  been  had,  the 
mother  is  urged  to  consult  the  family  physician  with- 
out delay.  In  addition  to  the  direct  subject  of  the  in- 
terview, it  is  possible  in  many  cases  to  discuss  other 

1  The  following  reply  from  one  of  the  mothers  to  whom  the 
usual  request  to  call  at  the  school  had  been  sent,  is  an  index  to 
the  attitude  of  some:  "Please  excuse  me  for  troubling  you  with 
this  writing.  I  received  a  card  from  school  this  morning  for  me 

to  come  to  school.     I  hope has  not  done  anything  wrong,  if 

she  has  I  will  punish  her.  ..." 

206 


THE  CARE   OF  ADOLESCENT   GIRLS 

matters  bearing  upon  the  health  of  the  girl,  such  as 
dress,  late  hours,  dancing,  etc. 

(3)  The  mother  is  introduced  to  her  daughter's 
teacher  and  if  there  is  anything  unusual  in  the  girl's 
condition  this  is  explained  to  her  with  instructions  as 
to  what  special  consideration  is  to  be  shown  to  the 
girl  in  the  classroom. 

(4)  The  mother  is  urged  to  give  her  daughter's 
health  prior  consideration  to  her  studies ,  she  is  urged 
to  keep  the  girl  at  home  one  or  more  days  as  neces- 
sary during  her  catamenia,  or  if  she  is  sufficiently 
normal  to  send  her  to  school,  to  direct  her  to  inform 
her  teacher  of  her  condition  or  to  write  for  .her  a  pri- 
vate note  to  the  teacher  to  that  effect.     The  teacher 
is  instructed  that,  upon  receipt  of  this  information, 
she  is  to  modify  the  strict  requirements  of  the  class 
work  in  this  case  for  the  time  being. 

We  have  found  the  response  to  our  efforts  friendly 
and  interested  and  in  many  cases  intensely  apprecia- 
tive. In  not  more  than  one- third  of  the  cases  have  the 
mothers  failed  to  respond — employment  during  the 
day  undoubtedly  accounts  for  many  of  these.  It  may 
be  noted  that  our  register  of  pupils  is  made  up  ra- 
cially1 as  follows:  American,  52  per  cent,  German,  22 

1  Determined  in  accordance  with  the  United  States  Immigra- 
tion Commission  standard,  by  race  to  which  the  father  of  the 
pupil  belongs. 

207 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

per  cent;  Hebrew,  6  per  cent;  English,  3.7  per  cent; 
Irish,  3.2  per  cent;  balance,  scattering.  In  general  it 
may  be  said  that  we  note  practically  no  difference  in 
attitude  or  degree  of  appreciation  along  racial  lines. 

In  order  to  systematize  the  work  a  card-catalogue  is 
kept  in  which  is  entered  for  each  girl,  her  name,  class, 
date  of  birth,  date  of  interview  with  mother,  date  of 
physical  maturity,  remarks  as  to  special  features  of 
the  case.  A  study  of  these  cards  serves  to  indicate  the 
importance  of  the  work,  and  citations  by  a  very  ran- 
dom selection  from  these  cards  may  throw  such  light 
upon  the  problem  as  general  statements  fail  to  do. 

CASE  1.  Age,  fifteen  years,  nine  months;  matured 
at  age  of  twelve;  sometimes  sick  every  three  weeks. 

CASE  2.  Age,  fourteen  years,  three  months;  ma- 
tured at  twelve;  irregular;  excessive,  headaches, 
studies  hard,  worries  over  work,  does  not  go  out 
enough. 

CASE  3.  Age,  fourteen  years,  eleven  months;  ma- 
tured at  twelve  years,  six  months;  delicate,  weak 
spine,  under  doctor's  care. 

CASE  4.  Age,  fourteen  years,  no  months;  not  ma- 
tured; ansemic,  studies  too  hard,  until  six  months  ago 
lived  in  country  and  rode  mile  to  school  on  wheel;  ar- 
rangements made  for  half-day  school  attendance  for 
remainder  of  term. 

CASE  5.  Age,  fourteen  years,  one  month;  not  ma- 
tured; perfectly  well. 

208 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

CASE  6.  Age,  thirteen  years,  eleven  months;  not 
matured;  mother's  remark:  "Oh,  I  wish  every  school 
would  do  this!" 

CASE  7.  Age,  fifteen  years,  no  months;  matured 
at  twelve  years,  six  months;  suffers  a  week. 

CASE  8.  Age,  thirteen  years,  no  months;  not  ma- 
tured; no  indications;  school  work  not  too  hard. 

CASE  9.  Age,  fifteen  years,  two  months;  matured 
at  fifteen;  miserable  for  two  years. 

CASE  10.  Age,  fourteen  years,  eleven  months;  not 
matured;  perfectly  well. 

CASE  11.  Age,  thirteen  years,  eight  months;  ma- 
tured at  thirteen  years,  six  months ;  complains  of  head- 
ache; too  much  home  work;  more  outdoor  exercise 
recommended. 

CASE  12.  Age,  fifteen  years,  nine  months;  matured 
at  fourteen;  perfectly  normal;  does  not  complain  of 
school  work. 

CASE  13.  Age,  thirteen  years,  no  months;  matured 
at  twelve  years,  six  months;  perfectly  normal. 

CASE  14.  Age,  thirteen  years,  nine  months;  not 
matured;  probably  coming  on;  headaches;  dizzi- 
ness. 

CASE  15.  Age,  thirteen  years,  eight  months;  ma- 
tured at  twelve;  pain;  irregular. 

CASE  16.  Age,  thirteen  years,  eleven  months;  ma- 
tured at  thirteen;  painful;  reads  too  much;  not  strong; 
needs  more  exercise. 

CASE  17.  Age,  twelve  years,  seven  months;  not  ma-  , 
tured;  tired  feeling;  headaches;  nosebleed. 

209 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

CASE  18.  Age,  twelve  years,  ten  months;  matured 
at  eleven  years,  six  months;  backache. 

CASE  19.  Age,  fourteen  years,  four  months;  ma- 
tured at  twelve;  drowsy;  headaches;  thinks  teacher 
does  not  like  her. 

CASE  20.  Age,  fourteen  years,  ten  months;  matured 
at  fourteen  years,  three  months ;  painful ;  must  remain 
home  at  least  one  day;  crying  spells;  morbid;  wants  to 
leave  school. 

CASE  21.  Age,  twelve  years,  six  months;  matured 
at  twelve;  miserable  for  two  years;  special  arrange- 
ment made  regarding  home  study. 

CASE  22.  Age,  fourteen  years,  two  months;  not  ma- 
tured; probably  near;  inherits  nervousness  and  tend- 
ency to  epilepsy. 

CASE  23.  Age,  sixteen  years,  three  months;  matured 
at  twelve  years,  four  months ;  backward  in  school  ow- 
ing to  moving  from  city  to  city;  studies  all  the  time; 
worries  about  work. 

CASE  24.  Age,  fourteen  years;  not  matured;  studies 
until  head  aches;  averse  to  exercise;  wants  to  read 
all  the  time;  sits  up  late;  mother  promises  to  see  that 
she  has  more  sleep  and  exercise. 

These  cases,  selected  from  hundreds,  are  sufficient 
in  number  to  indicate  the  serious  responsibility  which 
the  school  assumes  when  it  undertakes  to  administer 
education  in  ignorance  of  the  conditions  disclosed  by 
this  record.  To  continue  administering  thus  in  igno- 
rance would  seem  reprehensible  in  the  extreme.  Think 

210 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

of  a  class  in  which  are  included  such  extremes  as  CASE 
2  and  CASE  12,  and  consider  both  the  great  disadvan- 
tage under  which  the  teacher  labors  who  is  utterly  ig- 
norant of  the  difference  existing  between  normality 
and  abnormality,  and  the  great  injustice  which  is  done 
to  CASE  2  when  her  effort  and  proficiency  are  relent- 
lessly measured  by  the  same  standard  which  is  applied 
to  CASE  12.  Consider  the  gain  in  efficiency  of  any  class 
when  these  injustices  are  eliminated  and  the  standard 
of  management  is  shifted  from  the  idea  of  "the  girl 
for  the  class  "  to  that  of  "  the  class  for  the»ghi. "  How 
much  more  intelligently  can  the  teacher  treat  CASE  3, 
for  instance,  knowing  that  she  is  under  the  care  of  a 
physician  for  spinal  trouble !  How  much  wiser  will  be 
the  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  CASE  11  and  CASE 
5,  when  she  learns  that  the  former  although  only 
thirteen  years  old,  is  already  a  woman,  while  the  lat- 
ter at  fourteen  is  yet  a  girl !  How  much  more  effective 
will  be  the  work  of  the  teacher  with  CASE  19  when 
she  realizes  that  the  girl  thinks  her  "teacher  does 
not  like  her"  and  knows  the  physical  basis  for  this 
notion! 

I  return  now  to  restate  my  .convictions  in  answer  to 
the  six  excuses  originally  advanced  for  neglecting  this 
problem. 

1.  When  we  consider  that  even  in  the  twenty-four 
cases  cited,  the  age  of  maturity  varied  from  eleven 

211 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

years,  six  months,  to  fifteen  years,  and  that  the  average 
age  of  graduates  is  about  fourteen  years,  six  months,  it 
is  clear  that  the  problem  is  one  which  essentially  and 
primarily  concerns  the  elementary  school.  Consider- 
ate recognition  of  the  problem  must,  of  course,  extend 
into  the  secondary  schools  and  the  colleges,  but  with 
that  we  are  not  here  concerned.  The  responsibility  of 
the  elementary  school  is  especially  acute  because  it  is 
while  in  attendance  thereupon  that  the  great  majority 
of  girls  establish  their  maturity — establish  it  either 
normally  to.  their  future  safety  and  happiness  or 
abnormally  to  their  future  misfortune  and  irremedi- 
able suffering. 

2.  Every  teacher  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  school, 
will  respond  sympathetically  and  intelligently,  once 
the  importance  of  this  problem  is  presented  to  her, 
and  will  certainly  take  her  part  in  the  campaign  of  re- 
form.   Her  enlistment  cannot  help  but  give  to  her 
teaching  a  pedagogic  value  and  an  intelligent  direction 
which  has  previously  been  lacking. 

3.  A  proper  view  of  the  attendance  record  is  to  be 
obtained  by  thinking  of  school  problems  from  the 
child  out  and  not  from  the  system  down.    It  is  clearly 
our  business  to  consider  the  child  first,  last,  and  all  the 
time;  when  we  have  done  that  we  may  well  show  an 
utter  disregard  of  the  statistical  results.    To  promote 
a  certain  orthodox  per  cent  of  pupils,  to  secure  a  cer- 

212 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

tain  perfection-approaching  per  cent  of  attendance, 
to  make  the  ratio  of  something  to  something  else  ap- 
proach a  shibbolethic  norm — all  these  ambitions  are 
the  ambitions  of  the  pedantic  pedagogue,  of  the  self- 
seeking  slave  of  the  system,  and  must  be  eschewed  by 
the  professional  student  of  educational  problems.  Let 
the  roll  book  suffer  and  not  the  girl. 

4.  If  the  girl  herself  cannot  comprehend  that  true 
devotion  to  duty  sometimes  requires  her  apparent  neg- 
lect of  the  school  tasks,  then  the  school  and  the  home 
must  restrain  her  against  herself.  The  sex  inheritance 
of  the  girl  is  such  as  to  make  her  more  prone  to  err  in 
this  way  than  does  the  boy.  If  a  teacher  of  a  mixed 
class  overestimates  the  ability  of  her  pupils  and  assigns, 
for  instance,  twice  as  much  home  study  as  any  of  them 
can  reasonably  do,  it  is  the  girls  who  are  the  most  like- 
ly to  suffer.  The  inheritance  of  the  boy  is  a  craving 
for  the  open,  for  activity,  for  conflict.  If  the  teacher 
gives  him  such  an  amount  of  work  as  would  interfere 
with  the  business  of  his  life,  which  he  instinctively  and 
correctly  infers  is  not  grammar  and  algebra  but  growth 
and  action,  he  overrules  the  teacher  and  her  error  with- 
out compunction,  and  follows  the  call  of  his  instinct. 
The  adolescent  girl  overlays  her  impulse  with  devo- 
tion, her  whisper  of  rebellion  with  obedience  to  law 
and  custom,  and  blindly  follows  the  teacher  who  per- 
sonifies Duty.  Needless  to  say  that  this  summary  is 

213 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

stated  in  general  terms,  but  the  few  exceptions  either 
way  but  serve  to  emphasize  the  rule. 

5.  The  fear  of  public  resentment  is  probably  the 
most  potent  factor  in  preventing  teachers  and  princi- 
pals from  undertaking  the  serious  duty  which  we  have 
been  considering.  Broach  the  subject  in  any  quarter 
and,  even  where  recognition  of  the  problem  is  un- 
questioned, the  invariable  reply  is:  We  do  not  dare. 
I  feel  that  the  statement  which  I  am  about  to  make  is 
the  most  important  contribution  to  the  subject  which 
I  have  to  offer.  When  starting  the  work  I  shared  the 
general  feeling  that  we  should  have  to  face  resentment 
on  the  part  of  perhaps  a  large  number  of  parents,  and 
I  forewarned  my  assistant  that,  if  she  undertook  the 
work,  she  would  have  to  be  prepared  to  meet  this  re- 
sentment with  patience  and  resignation,  pursuing  her 
way  with  the  martyr's  spirit  and  suffering  rebuke  for 
the  sake  of  the  ultimate  good  which  must  surely  come 
of  the  work.  My  warning  was  absolutely  unwarranted 
by  the  subsequent  events.  Three  women  successively 
have  managed  the  work;  naturally,  though  uniformly 
devoted  to  the  spirit  of  the  undertaking  the  three  differ 
in  personality,  so  that  if  resentment  were  the  senti- 
ment among  the  mothers  of  the  district,  it  surely 
would  have  evinced  itself  with  one  or  the  other  of 
these  interviewers.  They  have  met  some  mothers 
who  were  ignorant  and  a  few  who  were  indifferent,  but 

214 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

in  five  years'  time  and  in  hundreds  of  cases,  they  have 
had  no  single  case  of  resentment  shown  by  a  mother.  In 
my  judgment,  this  absolutely  dismisses  the  question 
of  delicacy,  and  makes  it  inexcusable  for  us  to  neglect 
our  plain  duty. 

From  time  to  time,  feeling  the  public  pulse,  we  have 
written  to  some  of  the  mothers  in  the  following  strain : 

You  will  doubtless  recall  coming  to  the  school  on 
.,  190_,  upon  our  request,  for  a  conference  re- 


garding your  daughter 

We  are  giving  a  considerable  amount  of  time  and 
thought  to  this  subject,  and  it  would  be  of  assistance 
to  us  in  formulating  our  plans  for  the  future,  if  we 
might  have  some  expression  of  opinion  from  the 
mothers  who  have  cooperated  with  us. 

May  we  trouble  you  to  advise  us  as  to  your  opinion 
of  the  value  of  this  work,  as  seen  in  the  case  of  your 
own  daughter,  or  of  others  whom  you  may  know. 

To  this  request  we  have  received  many  encouraging 
replies,  among  them  the  following: 

(1)  Received  your  letter  and  in  reply  would  say  in 
regard  to  the  conference  concerning  my  daughter,  that 
it  is  very  valuable  work  and  should  be  continued. 

(2)  I  think  the  interest  and  time  you  have  taken  in 
the  health  of  maturing  girls  should  be  continued  as  I 
do  not  think  it  is  a  loss  of  time.    With  my  daughter 

215 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

your  plans  have  worked  out  with  great  success  as  her 
health  has  improved  greatly. 

(3)  In  answer  to  yours  of  the  sixteenth,  asking  for 
an  expression  of  my  opinion  concerning  the  course  you 
have  taken  in  regard  to  the  subject  in  question,  I 
would  say  that  it  meets  with  my  heartiest  approval, 
and  I  think  it  both  a  necessary  and  praiseworthy 
cause.    I  think  every  girl  will  be  benefited  by  your 
thoughtfulness. 

(4)  Your  note  of  the  sixth  inst.  was  duly  received 
and  I  thank  you  for  giving  me  the  opportunity  to  ex- 
press my  opinion  concerning  your  thoughtful  interest 
in  connection  with  the  health  of  maturing  girls. 

As  a  mother  who  has  had  three  girls  attend  your 
school  from  the  beginning  of  their  school  career  to 
graduation  to  the  high  school,  I  can  heartily  indorse 
your  system  which  certainly  should  be  continued. 

(5)  In  reply  to  your  letter  I  would  state  that  the 
stand  you  are  taking  in  regard  to  the  girls  between  the 
ages  of  thirteen  and  sixteen  is  a  very  good  one.    I 
found  it  so  with  my  daughter.    She  was  a  very  nerv- 
ous and  excitable  child  and  I  found  as  each  month 
came  around  she  was  more  so.    I  kept  her  at  home  and 
forbade  all  books  and  lessons  and  I  think  she  was  much 
better  for  it. 

(6)  In  reply  to  your  letter  of ,  I  wish  to  say 

that  I  think  it  a  very  wise  plan. 

216 


THE   CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

As  to  my  daughter,  I  am  very  sure  that  if  her  health 
had  not  been  considered,  she  would  have  been  com- 
pelled to  give  up  her  studies  entirely  and  of  course 
lose  her  diploma  which  she  now  possesses  and  prizes 
very  highly. 

Therefore  I  say  again  the  good  work  should  be  kept 
up  if  possible.  Ever  gratefully  yours, 

(7)  I  have  so  much  gratitude  in  my  heart  to  you 
who  have  been  so  kind  and  thoughtful  for  my  daugh- 
ter's welfare,  that  I  cannot  let  this  time  pass  without 

expressing  my  sincere  thanks  to  you.    is  strong 

and  well,   better  than  she  has  ever  been,   and  it 
is  owing  to  your  loving  consideration  for  her  health. 
It  is  with  regret  that  she  leaves  her  teachers  and  I  can 
only  hope  that  she  will  be  as  well  cared  for  in  the  four 
years  to  come  in  high  school. 

(8)  I  assure  you  we  appreciate  most  thoroughly 
your  interest  in  the  health  and  welfare  of  the  growing 
girls  under  your  charge.    Health  is  very  important. 
Your  words  aroused  me  to  see  the  injury  that  might 
be  done  by  sending  immature  girls  to  school  to  drag 
through  weary  hours. 

(9)  I  received  your  letter  of  the and  wish  to 

let  you  know  that  I  think  the  cooperation  of  the  par- 
ents and  the  teachers  is  a  very  fine  plan,  as  the  best 
results  in  work  are  thus  obtained  by  a  perfect  under- 
standing of  the  parents  and  teachers.    The  value  of 
this  work  is  very  great  and  be  assured  it  has  done 
much  for  mine  and  many  others. 

15  217 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

(10)  Answering  your  letter  of ,  I  am  only  too 

pleased  to  give  you  my  opinion  on  the  subject  of 
which  you  write. 

It  is  certainly  a  blessing  to  many  girls  who  are  at- 
tending school  that  the  teachers  are  giving  so  much 
time  and  thought  to  the  subject,  as  many  mothers  who 
keep  their  daughters  home  unnecessarily  at  times,  do 
not  think  of  letting  them  stay  at  home  in  such  a  case 
where  it  is  really  for  the  girl's  own  future  benefit. 

This  little  conference  with  mothers  I  believe  will  in 
the  cases  as  above  mentioned,  remind  them  of  their 
duty,  and  in  time  we  will  have  healthier  girls  than  at 
the  present  day.  I  do  not  think  that  it  is  because 
mothers  are  neglectful  in  any  way  toward  their 
daughters,  but  because  they  do  not  realize  that  rest  at 
such  a  time  means  so  much  in  after  life. 

Extending  my  best  thanks  to  all  the  teachers  en- 
gaged in  this  work  for  their  thoughtfulness,  .  .  . 

(11)  I  wish  to  say  that  in  my  opinion  the  method 
you  are  pursuing  in  this  relation  deserves  approval. 

It  gives  to  the  teacher  an  acquaintance  with  the  par- 
ticular physical  condition  of  each  girl  and  also  brings 
to  the  attention  of  the  parent  the  importance  of  study- 
ing her  daughter's  bodily  and  mental  welfare. 

To  my  mind  no  general  rule  can  be  of  value  in  a 
matter  like  this,  but  each  girl  must  be  dealt  with  ac- 
cording to  the  necessities  of  her  own  case  and  what 
these  may  be  can  best  be  learned  by  a  meeting  of 
mother  and  teacher. 

218 


THE  CARE  OF  ADOLESCENT  GIRLS 

(12)  I  recall  my  visit  to  the  school  on of  last 

year.  Too  much  time  and  thought  I  am  sure  cannot 
be  given  to  the  subject  you  have  under  consideration. 
Mothers  are  too  prone  to  let  the  future  take  care  of  it- 
self, with  the  result  we  know  only  too  well,  trusting  to 
Providence  what  they  should  do  themselves.  Several 
cases  have  come  under  my  personal  observation  which 
strengthen  my  conclusion  in  this  regard  and  in  one 
case  the  ending  was  sad  indeed. 

I  am  heartily  in  sympathy  with  your  work.  If  the 
mothers  will  not  take  it  up  at  home,  it  is  the  province 
of  the  state,  through  the  schools,  which  have  the  care 
of  the  girls  for  such  a  great  part  of  their  school  life,  to 
do  it. 

6.  A  word  or  two  as  to  the  limitations  of  the  work. 
I  understand  that  we  have  come  far  short  of  solving 
the  great  problem  of  adolescence  in  the  large.  I  realize 
that  there  is  an  important  problem  presented  by  ado- 
lescence of  boys,  but  I  share  the  sense  of  bafflement 
under  which  educators  all  over  the  country  are  labor- 
ing. I  have  nothing  to  offer  toward  the  solution  of 
this  phase  of  the  problem.  But  what  we  have  done 
has  been  done  through  conscientious  work  by  devoted 
assistants  and  teachers,  and  done  to  some  purpose  and 
with  definite  result.  I  believe  that  in  this  as  in  all 
school  difficulties,  we  should  aim  to  solve  completely 
a  limited  phase  of  a  problem  rather  than  lightly  to 
touch  upon  the  solution  of  the  whole  problem.  Not 

219 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

too  much  has  been  nor  should  be  attempted.  Above 
all,  the  school  must  at  no  point  assume  to  replace  the 
physician,  but  it  should  cooperate  with  him  and  sup- 
plement his  work,  and  where  necessary,  lead  to  the 
calling  of  his  attention  to  cases  requiring  it.  There 
must  be  nothing  melodramatic  in  our  attitude;  we 
must  not  see  difficulties  where  none  exist,  nor  borrow 
trouble,  we  must  work  quietly,  tactfully,  and  dili- 
gently and  do  thoroughly  the  work  within  the  limits 
set  forth  above. 

A  woman  principal  should  have  no  difficulty  in 
carrying  forward  such  systematic  supervision  as  I 
have  indicated.  A  man  principal  should  be  so  estab- 
lished in  a  school  that,  working  through  competent 
women  assistants,  he,  too,  may  give  the  impetus  to  such 
supervision.  If  he  hesitates  to  discuss  the  subject,  I 
here  respectfully  offer  the  suggestion  that  he  place 
this  chapter  in  the  hands  of  his  woman  represent- 
ative with  the  simple  statement  that  he  wishes  her  to 
undertake  the  work  outlined  and  that  he  will  support 
her  in  her  efforts. 


INDEX 


(Authorities  cited  are  printed  in  SMALL  CAPITALS) 


Absence-record  of  girls,  204 
Acquisition  in  composition,  83 
Adolescent  girls,  care  of,  199 
Algebra   applied    to   arithmetic 

problems,  146 
ALLYN  AND  BACON,  85 
Altruism  in  society,  4 
Alumni,  the,  185 
Analysis  in  grammar,  111 
Arithmetic  devices,  132 

problems,  use  of  color  in,  172 
ARNOLD,  SARAH  L.,  93 
Astronomy  in  the  curriculum,  41 

BAGLEY,  WILLIAM  C.,  49,  133 
Blackboard,  use  of  the,  161 
Boston,  curriculum  in,  37 
BUTLER,  NICHOLAS  M.,  33 

California  prize  essays,  57 
Capitalization  rules,  105 
Carelessness  immoral,  67 
CARPENTER,  BAKER  AND  SCOTT, 

87 

CARPENTER,  G.  R.,  89 
Caste,  natural,  11 
Catalogue,  museum,  178 
Chalk,  use  of,  163 
CHANCELLOR,  WILLIAM  E.,  54 


Chart,  multiplication  drill,  150 
Chicago,  curriculum  in,  37 
CHUBB,  PERCIVAL,  81,  85 
CLARKE,  DR.,  202 
College  influence  on  elementary 

schools,  10 

Colored  chalk,  use  of,  170 
Commercial  schools,  24 
Composition  in  upper  grades,  81 
Compulsory  education,  6 
Conduct,  threefold  basis  of,  58 
Content  and  form  studies,  38 
Culture  and  utility  subjects,  48 
Curriculum,  the,  36 
and  moral  training,  65 
the  same  for  boys  and  girls, 
201 

Democracy  in  our  high  school, 
17 

our  peculiar  concept  of,  11,  15 
DEXTER,  EDWIN  GRANT,  7,  36 
DICKENS,  CHARLES,  49 
Discipline  cases  and  alumni  in- 
terest, 187 

the  pedagogue's  term,  34 
DRAPER,  ANDREW  S.,  12 
Drill  and  moral  virtue,  70 

cards  in  arithmetic,  133 


221 


INDEX 


Drill,  insufficient,  50 
Duty,  education  as  a,  4 
the  girl's  devotion  to,  213 

Education    as    duty  and  privi- 
lege,  4 

compulsory,  5 

for  leadership,  5 

state  control  of,  3 
Educational  ladder,  21 
Egoism  in  society,  4 
Einheitsschule,  the,  9 
Elementary    organization    in 
America,  7 

France,  8 

Germany,  8 
ELIOT,  DR.,  7 
EMERSON,  ALBERT  W.,  88 
EMERSON-BENDER,  85 
English  history  facts,  127 

in  upper  grades,  81 
Enriched  curriculum,  40 
Equal    educational    opportuni- 
ties, 27 

ESPENSHADE,    A.    HOWRY,    88 

Essentials,  the,  38,  46 
Experiment  station,  the  school 

an,  78 
Expression  in  composition,  88 

Fads,  43 

Fagin,  the  pedagogue,  49 

FARRINGTON,  FREDERIC  ERNEST, 

9,  177 

Fee,  tuition,  17 
Financial   basis   of   curriculum, 

44 
Form  and  content  studies,  38 


Formal  compositions,  91 
FOSTER,  WILLIAM  TRUFANT,  85 
France,    compulsory    education 

in,  6 

school  organization  in,  8 
Fundamental  operations  in  arith- 
metic, 132,  145 

GARDINER,  J.  H.,  84,  85 
Germany,  compulsory  education 

in,  6 

gymnasial  practice  in,  29 
pupils  in  the  Volksschule,    16 
school  organization  in,  8 
GILBERT-HARRIS,  88 
Girls,  care  of  adolescent,  199 
Grammar,  analysis  in,  111 
use  of  color  in  teaching,  175 

Habit  building,  49,  133 

HANUS,  PAUL  H.,  56 

High  school,  democracy  in  our, 

17 

Higher  schools  in  Germany,  8 
HILL,  ADAMS  SHERMAN,  86,  89 
HINSDALE,  B.  A.,  92 
History  facts,  118 
HUGHES  AND  KLEMM,  33 
HUGHES,  R.  E.,  9 
Huxley's  educational  ladder,  21 
Hygiene  Association,  American 

School,  32 

Ideal  must  have  value,  70 
Idealist,  the  principal  a  practi- 
cal, 78 

Ideals  and  interest,  68 
Impoverishment,  danger  of,  43 


INDEX 


Informal  compositions,  89 
Interest  and  moral  training,  68 

Jack  of  all  subjects,  43 
JOHNSON,  CHARLES  F.,  85,  87 
JOHNSON,  ROSSITER,  89 
Judgment  and  memory,  118,  132 

Kansas  City,  curriculum  in,  37 
KELLOGG,  BRAINERD,  88 
Kindergarten  and  moral  train- 
ing, 71 
KLEMM,  DR.,  177 

Ladder,  Huxley's  educational,  21 
Leadership,  education  for,  5 
Leisure,  the  school  as,  53 
Lettering  on  blackboard,  168 
Longitude  and  time,  156 

Machine,  defective  school,  63 
Management,  problems  in,  177 
"  Marks"  and  health  of  girls,  205 
Maturity,  age  of,  211 
Memory  and  judgment,  118,  132 
Mensuration  of   the   trapezoid, 

154 

Method,  problems  in,  81 
Model  composition,  86 
Moral  perfection  expected,  59 
training,  57 
and  drill,  70 
interest,  68 
the  curriculum,  65 
kindergarten,  71 
time  schedule,  67 
Multiplication  drill  chart,  150 
Museum,  school,  177 


National    Educational    Associa- 
tion, 27 
New  York  curriculum,  37,  39 

Opportunities,  equal  education- 
al, 27 

Organic  structure,  the,  3 
Organization  in  composition,  85 

Paragraphs,  87 

Parsing,  112 

PAYNE,  BRUCE  RYBURN,  32,  36, 

38,  39,  40 

Perfection,  moral,  in  children,  59 
PERRY,  FRANCES  M.,  85 
Physical  education,  31 
Principal  a  practical  idealist,  78 
Privilege,  education  as  a,  4 
Promotion    of    the    unprepared 

pupils,  50 
Punctuation  rules,  101 

Reading  and  thinking,  82 
Reorganization     of     American 

schools,  18 
Retardation,  63 
Rhetorical  unity,  rules  for,  86 

ROBBINS-ROWE,  86 

Routes  and  speeds  on  education- 
al rails,  29 
RUGH,  C.  E.,  57 

St.  Louis,  curriculum  in,  37 
San  Francisco,  curriculum  in,  37 
SANTAYANA,  PROFESSOR,  53 
Scheduled,  the  American  child, 

19 
School  museum,  177 


223 


INDEX 


SCOTT-DENNEY,  85 
SCOTT-SOUTHWORTH,  85 
Self-preservation,  3 
Sex  inheritance,  213 
SHORTER,  EDWIN  DuBois,  91 
State  support  of  education,  3 
Structure,  the  organic,  3 
Sweden,    compulsory   education 
in,  6 

TAYLOR,  JOSEPH  S.,  81 
Thinking  and  reading,  82 
Time  schedule  and  moral  train- 
ing, 67 


Trapezoid,  mensuration  of  the, 

154 
Tuition  fee,  17 

United  States  history  facts,  121 
Utilitarian  aim  in  education,  38 
Utility  and  culture  subjects,  48 

Voice,  use  of  the,  162 
Volksschule,  the,  8 

Wage-earner,  the  moderate,  20 
WENDELL,  BARRETT,  72,  87,  89 

WlNTERBURN,   ROSA  V.,   88 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


(1) 


rannnwrrr  OP  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
THIS  BOOK  is  DU  LAST  DATE 


STAMPED  BELOW 


JUL  31  1915 


OUL  15  1927 


BOw  i.'ir, 


YB  0500! 


